Nrog rau txoj kev ua lej thiab kev txheeb cais, nws kawm txog cov ntaub ntawv thiab muaj ntau txoj hauv kev ua nws. Qhov no yog li cas kev tshawb fawb yog ua los ntawm kev tsim kho ntawm thaj chaw maps nrog tshwj xeeb cov duab kos npe spatial qauv. Txoj kev cartographic yog qhov tseem ceeb hauv cov txheej txheem ntawm kev kawm cov pej xeem, piv txwv li.
Ntiaj Teb Model
Ntawm thaj chaw daim duab qhia chaw - txo cov duab dav dav ntawm lub dav hlau ntawm lub ntiaj teb saum npoo - kev sib txuas, kev sib txuas, kev tso ntawm cov khoom thiab cov xwm txheej tau taug qab zoo, uas tau xaiv thiab ua raws li lub hom phiaj ntawm daim ntawv qhia no. Cov txheej txheem cartographic yog siv nyob rau hauv thaj chaw, ethnography thiab ntau lwm yam kev tshawb fawb, nrog rau hauv kev ua ub no, vim nws yog cov ntaub ntawv zoo, pom thiab ntsuas, uas yog, muaj rau ntau yam kev ntsuas.
Piv txwv li, cov ntaub ntawv hais txog pej xeem thiab kev faib tawm ntawm tib neeg kuj muaj nyob rau hauv lub npe hu ua topographicmaps (general geographical). Xws li daim npav tau nthuav dav hauv nruab nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua 19th. Lawv qhia txog qhov ntom ntom, tus lej, txawm tias muaj peev xwm rau kev sib hais haum, hom kev sib haum xeeb, muaj pes tsawg leeg thiab kev tsim tawm ntawm tib neeg, lawv txoj kev tsiv teb tsaws chaw, thiab ntau ntxiv.
daim npav yog dab tsi
Txhawm rau kawm txog cov pej xeem ntawm lub ntiaj teb, muaj cov duab qhia txog keeb kwm thiab haiv neeg, qhov twg koj tuaj yeem soj ntsuam kev rov qab los ntawm tib neeg, kev nthuav dav ntawm haiv neeg kab lis kev cai, lub neej, anthropometric yam ntxwv. Qhov tseem ceeb ntawm txoj kev cartographic hauv kev kawm txog cov yam ntxwv ntawm kev sib raug zoo thiab kev lag luam yog qhov zoo heev, cov duab qhia chaw qhia txog kev sib raug zoo, tus qauv ntawm kev nyob hauv cheeb tsam, cov peev txheej ua haujlwm, lawv siv, thiab ntau yam ntxiv.
Cartography siv lub cim tshwj xeeb, kev kos duab tshwj xeeb - cartographic, nrog cov cim, daim duab kos, daim duab kos, cov txheej txheem taw tes, thaj chaw, isolines, qhov sib txawv ntawm keeb kwm yav dhau, cov cim txav - qhov tseem ceeb lossis qhov chaw, nthuav tawm cov khoom ntawm cov khoom. Daim ntawv qhia thaj chaw tuaj yeem yog lub cev, kev nom kev tswv, geological, toj roob hauv pes, thiab lwm yam. Muaj ob peb hom.
Kev faib tawm
Qhia ib daim ntawv qhia los ntawm thaj chaw los ntawm nws lub hom phiaj lossis los ntawm thaj chaw tshwj xeeb, los ntawm ntsuas, los ntawm cov ntsiab lus. Qhov kawg yog qhov tseem ceeb tshaj plaws. Nws yog cov ntsiab lus uas hais txog qhov no lossis daim ntawv qhia ntawd rau qhov kev pom thematic lossis thaj chaw dav dav. Ua ntej ntawm tag nrho cov, koj yuav tsum tau saib nyob rau hauv lub cheeb tsam: nws qhia ib tug cais cheeb tsam, lub teb chaws, mainland, los yog nws yog ib daim ntawv qhia ntawm lub ntiaj teb no. Tom ntej no, cov txheej txheemdaim duab cartographic, nrog rau cov nplai. Muaj daim ntawv qhia me me, nruab nrab thiab loj loj. Tau kawg, qhov raug thiab nthuav dav yuav txawv.
Nws tseem ceeb heev kom paub lub hom phiaj ntawm daim npav, uas yog, nws yog npaj rau dab tsi. Yog hais tias muaj ib daim ntawv thov ntawm thaj chaw maps rau kev soj ntsuam, cov no yog scientific reference maps. Tsim los ua kom nrov cov tswv yim lossis kev paub ntawm tus kheej - kab lis kev cai thiab kev kawm. Muaj ntau hom ntawv qhia kev kawm uas ua lub luag haujlwm ntawm kev pabcuam pom, uas yog siv los kawm xws li keeb kwm, thaj chaw, geology thiab ntau yam kev qhuab qhia. Ntawm lawv, contour maps nyob ib qho chaw tshwj xeeb.
Cov ntsiab lus
Yog tias nyob rau hauv tus txheej txheem ntawm kev daws teeb meem kev ua haujlwm nws yog qhov tsim nyog los tso saib qee yam xwm txheej thiab cov khoom siv, daim duab qhia kev siv tau. Daim duab qhia chaw ncig tebchaws tau nthuav dav, uas qhia txog txhua qhov chaw nyob nrog thaj chaw, qhov chaw pom, txoj hauv kev ntawm kev txav mus los, chaw so, hmo ntuj nyob, thiab lwm yam los ntawm hom kev ncig xyuas. Cov txheej txheem ntawm daim duab sawv cev ntawm no zoo ib yam li kev taw qhia thiab kev qhia.
Lub cev daim duab qhia thaj chaw qhia txog txhua yam ntsig txog thaj chaw tshwm sim - tag nrho kev nyem thiab tag nrho cov dej ntws, cov yam ntxwv ntawm cov av npog npog, txhua qhov chaw nyob thiab cov khoom lag luam, txhua tus ciam teb thiab kev sib txuas lus. Lub Xeev Cartography Service cuam tshuam nrog ob qho tib si sau npe ntawm cov khoom thiab cadastre. Qhov no yog Rosreestr. Daim duab qhia lub cev loj nrog txhua yam khoomcov cheeb tsam hu ua topographic, thiab tib qhov nruab nrab-scale topographic-saib xyuas. Daim duab qhia lub cev me me yeej ib txwm saib xwb.
Tshwj xeeb
Thematically, daim npav txawv ntawm ib leeg. Lawv tuaj yeem qhia txhua yam - los ntawm qhov chaw ntawm cov khoom mus rau qhov muaj zog thiab kev sib raug zoo ntawm cov xwm txheej ntuj, los ntawm kev sib raug zoo thiab kev lag luam rau cov pej xeem kev loj hlob thiab kev poob qis. Nws muaj peev xwm faib cov duab qhia chaw raws li lub ntsiab lus hauv ob pawg: cov uas tshawb txog ntuj tsim, thiab cov uas tau mob siab rau kev sib raug zoo phenomena. Cartography yog ib qho kev tshawb fawb qub qub, koj tuaj yeem pib kawm nws los ntawm cov duab pob zeb. Tab sis nws tsis siv sij hawm ntev rau nws los txhim kho tiag tiag. Tshwj xeeb tshaj yog cov txheej txheem no tau nrawm nrog qhov pib ntawm txoj kev loj hlob ntawm airspace thiab chaw.
Yog li cov ncauj lus kom ntxaws tshaj plaws ntawm cov xwm txheej ntuj raug muab tso ua ke, uas npog tag nrho lub ntuj ib puag ncig hauv txhua qhov kev sib txuas. Cov no yog geological thiab geophysical maps, nrog cov ntsiab lus ntawm lub ntiaj teb thiab dej hiav txwv pem teb, climatic thiab meteorological, botanical thiab oceanographic, av thiab hydrological maps, maps ntawm geographical thiab lub cev toj roob hauv pes thiab minerals, thiab hais txog. Kev saib xyuas twb tau them rau cov phiaj xwm kev coj noj coj ua ntawm no, tab sis nws kuj nyuaj heev los muab cov npe ua tiav ntawm lawv.
Txoj kev siv daim duab kos
Ntxiv rau daim duab qhia chaw qhia txhua yam txog cov pej xeem, muaj keeb kwm, nom tswv, nyiaj txiag thiab thaj chaw thaj chaw, thiab txhua yam ntawm cov subspecies no kuj muaj.structural division, heev branched. Ib qho piv txwv ntawm txoj kev cartographic hauv geography yog daim ntawv qhia kev lag luam. Tseem muaj kev lag luam - dav dav thiab sectoral, thiab kev ua liaj ua teb, thiab kev lag luam nuv ntses, thiab kev thauj mus los, thiab kev sib txuas lus, thiab ntau ntxiv uas tau kawm kom ntxaws. Ib qho kev kos npe tshwj xeeb yog ib txwm siv, uas yog lub hauv paus ntawm txoj kev tshawb fawb cartographic hauv yuav luag txhua qhov kev tshawb fawb, thiab kev txheeb cais ib txwm muab cov khoom siv rau kev ua haujlwm cartographic.
Los ntawm cov txheej txheem ntawm kev siv daim duab qhia kev tshawb fawb, ntau yam yog siv, ntawm qhov tseem ceeb tshaj plaws yog cov txheej txheem graphical, kev tsom xam pom, kev ua haujlwm cartometric (ntsuas kev sib koom ua ke, nyob deb, xam cov pej xeem ceev thiab qhov sib npaug ntawm qhov tshwm sim ntawm cov zaub mov, thiab lwm yam..), kev txheeb xyuas lej thiab kev txheeb cais, kev ua lej ua qauv, tsim cov duab kos duab tom qab ua cov duab kos duab, thiab lwm yam. Txawm li cas los xij, lub hauv paus ntawm txoj kev tshawb fawb cartographic yog kev cia siab rau qhov tseeb thiab kev ntseeg tau ntawm kev txheeb cais.
Daim ntawv thov
Kev tshawb fawb niaj hnub no tsis tuaj yeem xav txog yam tsis muaj kev pab los ntawm txoj kev kos duab. Tag nrho cov kev tshawb fawb ntawm lub ntiaj teb yog raws li nws: geology, geography, geochemistry, geophysics, oceanology thiab tag nrho cov planetology muab cov ntsiab lus ntawm kev tshawb fawb ntawm maps, ces muab sau ua ke thiab soj ntsuam lawv. Qhov no yog li cas cov kev xav tshiab tau tsim thiab tsim, qhov no yog li cas kev kwv yees raug tsim thiab sim. Yuav luag txhua ceg ntawm kev paub, mus rau qib sib txawv, yog nyob ntawm daim ntawv qhia.
Piv txwv li, geomorphologytag nrho cov qauv yog tsim los ntawm cov ntaub ntawv hais txog kev nyem, uas tau txais los ntawm topographic maps. Thiab rau thaj chaw kho mob, cov duab qhia chaw tau suav nrog cov cheeb tsam ntawm qhov tshwm sim ntawm cov kab mob sib kis thiab kab mob raws li kev noj qab haus huv thiab kev noj qab haus huv maps. Qhov zoo tshaj plaws piv txwv yog planetology. Qhov tsis tu ncua ntawm cov qauv saum npoo ntawm peb lub ntiaj teb thiab lwm lub cev saum ntuj ceeb tsheej tau muab tso ua ke los ntawm cov duab qhia chaw thiab duab. Qhov no yog yuav ua li cas peb thiaj paub cov dej hiav txwv pem teb, qhov twg, ib yam li qhov tob tob, txiv neej yeej tsis tau. Cov txheej txheem ntawm daim duab kos muab txhua yam kev tshawb fawb ib hom lus uas lub ntiaj teb paub. Tsis muaj hluav taws xob, lossis physics, lossis thev naus laus zis tuaj yeem ua yam tsis muaj daim duab kos, ib yam li tsis muaj lej.
Kev Sib Txuas Lus
Yuav luag txhua txoj kev lag luam kev lag luam, kev xav, ntuj tsim, kev tshawb fawb thiab yuav luag txhua qhov kev qhuab qhia kev tshawb fawb tau zoo sib xws nrog daim duab kos duab, txij li kev sib cuam tshuam tshwm sim nrog txhua ceg ntawm kev paub. Cov txheej txheem cartographic ntawm kev paub yog feem ntau sib txuas nrog cov kev tshawb fawb ntawm cov ntiaj chaw - thaj chaw, ecological, geological thiab ntau lwm yam. Tus kws kos duab yog armed nrog cov kev paub uas tsim nyog kom raug cuam tshuam cov yam ntxwv, nta, yam ntxwv ntawm tej yam tshwm sim uas muaj nyob rau hauv cov ntsiab lus ntawm tej maps.
Sociology, kev lag luam, pej xeem, keeb kwm, archaeology thiab lwm yam kev tshawb fawb kev lag luam kuj muab qee cov ntsiab lus rau thematic mapping. Qhov no yog li cas tshiab cartographic txoj kev tshwm sim - kev npaj network, kev ua lej, piv txwv li. Nyob rau hauv lub tswv yim, txoj kev no yog tam sim no raws li txoj kev xavkev xav, qauv kev xav, kev xav, kev txheeb xyuas qhov system. Cartography tswvyim, kos npe system, qauv qauv, daim ntawv qhia system tau tsim.
Kev pab los ntawm lwm yam kev tshawb fawb
Geodesy, topography, gravimetry, astronomy muab cov kev tshawb fawb ntawm cartography nrog ntau thiab ntau cov ntaub ntawv tseeb ntawm qhov loj thiab cov duab ntawm lub ntiaj teb thiab cov ntiaj chaw neeg txawv teb chaws, uas muab lub hauv paus rau kev sau cov duab thematic thiab lub cev (general geographic) maps. Kev txheeb xyuas lej, trigonometry, geometry, statistical data of probability theory and set theory, mathematical logic and other sciences are very widely use for constructing map projections, tsim algorithms, lej thiab cartographic qauv, siv maps hauv cov kev pab cuam, hauv kev tsim cov ntaub ntawv systems.
Kev siv cuab yeej ua, luam ntawv, tshuaj siv tshuab, hluav taws xob, laser thiab semiconductor thev naus laus zis, nrog rau ntau lwm yam lag luam tam sim no nyob rau hauv kev tsim cov kab kos duab. Kev tshawb fawb tshiab - kev paub txog tej thaj chaw deb: qhov chaw, kev yees duab hauv qab dej thiab huab cua, kev txhais cov duab, photometry, photogrammetry, kev saib xyuas pab sau thiab hloov kho daim ntawv qhia, tsim cov ntaub ntawv ntawm cov ntaub ntawv digital thiab koom nrog ntau lwm cov txheej txheem cartographic. Geoinformatics cuam tshuam nrog cov duab kos. Atlases thiab daim duab qhia chaw yog lub hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm lub cev thiab qhov chaw rau kev ua qauv.
Txoj kev cartographic yog ib txwm siv los kawm cov qauv: qhov chaw nyob li casphenomena, yuav ua li cas lawv interconnected, ntau npaum li cas lawv nyob ntawm ib leeg, yuav ua li cas lawv txhim kho, thiab hais txog. Muaj ntau txoj hauv kev rau kev txheeb xyuas thiab ua cov duab qhia chaw thaj chaw, yog li tsuas yog qhov yooj yim tshaj plaws yuav raug txiav txim siab ntawm no.
Kev tsom xam pom yog thaum qhov kev faib tawm ntawm qhov chaw, kev sib txuas, kev sib txuas, kev hloov pauv ntawm txhua qhov tshwm sim raug pom pom ntawm daim duab qhia chaw. Graphical tsom xam - thaum cov profiles thiab cov ntu tau tsim nyob rau hauv daim duab qhia chaw, muab visibility rau ntsug mus rau cov txheej txheem phenomena; thaiv cov duab kos tau tsim, qhov twg cov duab ntawm cov struts nyob rau hauv kev xam pom thiab ntsug yog ua ke; ntau daim duab thiab kab kos.
Cartometric ua haujlwm
Daim duab qhia chaw txiav txim siab qhov sib koom ua ke, qhov ntev, qhov siab, qhov deb, thaj chaw, ntim, lub kaum ntse ntse thiab lwm yam, uas yog, qhov ntau ntawm cov khoom uas tau piav qhia hauv daim duab qhia. Tsis tas li ntawd, kev txheeb xyuas lej thiab kev txheeb cais yog siv los kawm txog qhov sib xws ntawm qhov tshwm sim (kub, pejxeem ntom ntom, tsim tau thiab lwm yam tsis muaj) txhawm rau txiav txim siab lawv qhov chaw nyob thiab kev hloov pauv raws sijhawm, uas tau txiav txim siab los ntawm ntau yam, thiab lawv txoj haujlwm tsis paub.
Tom ntej no yog qhov tig ntawm kev ua lej ua lej, uas tsim cov qauv lej spatial, cov lus piav qhia siv lej ntawm cov txheej txheem lossis cov xwm txheej raws li cov ntaub ntawv thawj coj los ntawm daim duab qhia chaw. Tom qab ntawd tus qauv tau kawm, qhov tshwm sim raug txhais thiab piav qhia, cov duab qhia chaw tau ua tiav, hloov mus rau hauv cov khoom siv, yooj yim thiab npaj rau ib qho kev kawm tshwj xeeb (piv txwv li, qhov ntxhab ntawm qhov chaw siab tshaj ntawmkawm txog cov txheej txheem av yaig thiab lawv qhov kev twv ua ntej).
Analysis
Thaum daim duab qhia chaw ntawm cov ntsiab lus sib txawv raug tshuaj xyuas, cov lus xaus txog kev sib raug zoo thiab kev txwv ntawm kev tshawb fawb feem ntau nthuav dav heev. Qhov no yog ib tug complex daim ntawv qhia txoj kev. Qhov no yog li cas topographic maps thiab thematic ceg maps piv - av, geological, geobotanical thiab lwm yam. Piv txwv li, thaum kawm txog kev sib raug zoo ntawm cov av thiab cov duab qhia chaw saum toj kawg nkaus ntawm ib cheeb tsam, nws tuaj yeem tsim tau tias cov av contours feem ntau cuam tshuam nrog cov ntsiab lus nyem.
Saline marshes mus rau lakeside kev nyuaj siab, kuj chernozems mus rau hauv qab ntawm kwj ha thiab gullies, alluviality rau dej nyab. Tsis tas li ntawd, qhov tsis tu ncua ntawm cov qauv ntawm cov av contours kuj tau txiav txim siab: solonetzes thiab solonchaks yog sib npaug, nyob rau hauv thaj tsam ntawm lub pas dej qub, cov nyom chernozem av yog kab rov tav, ces koj tuaj yeem mus ntxiv. Qee zaum txawm tias qhov kev tsom xam pom tau txaus los tsim kom muaj kev sib raug zoo thawj zaug. Kev ua haujlwm cartometric ntxiv txhawb ntxiv, ua kom zoo dua qub thiab qhia meej cov lus xaus thawj zaug nrog cov yam ntxwv zoo thiab ntau yam.
