noob caj noob ces yog ib qho kev tshawb fawb uas kawm txog cov qauv ntawm kev sib kis ntawm tus cwj pwm ntawm niam txiv mus rau cov xeeb ntxwv. Qhov kev qhuab qhia no tseem txiav txim siab txog lawv cov khoom thiab muaj peev xwm hloov pauv. Nyob rau tib lub sijhawm, cov qauv tshwj xeeb - cov noob - ua raws li cov ntaub ntawv. Tam sim no, science tau sau cov ntaub ntawv txaus. Nws muaj ob peb ntu, txhua tus muaj nws cov dej num thiab cov khoom ntawm kev tshawb fawb. Qhov tseem ceeb tshaj plaws ntawm cov ntu: classical, molecular, kho mob caj ces thiab caj ces engineering.
Classical genetics
Classical noob caj noob ces yog kev tshawb fawb ntawm kev tsim noob neej. Qhov no yog cov cuab yeej ntawm txhua yam kab mob kis tau lawv cov cim sab nraud thiab sab hauv rau cov xeeb ntxwv thaum yug me nyuam. Classical genetics tseem cuam tshuam nrog kev kawm ntawm kev hloov pauv. Nws yog qhia nyob rau hauv instability ntawm cov paib. Cov kev hloov pauv no sau los ntawm ib tiam dhau ib tiam. Nws tsuas yog los ntawm qhov kev hloov pauv no uas cov kab mob tuaj yeem hloov kho rau lawv qhov chaw nyob.
Cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm ntawm cov kab mob muaj nyob hauv cov noob. Tam sim no, lawv tau txiav txim siab los ntawm qhov pom ntawm cov noob caj noob ces molecular. Txawm tias muaj cov nocov ntsiab lus ntev ua ntej ntu no tshwm sim.
Cov ntsiab lus "mutation", "DNA", "chromosomes", "variability" tau paub nyob rau hauv cov txheej txheem ntawm ntau cov kev tshawb fawb. Tam sim no cov txiaj ntsig ntawm ntau pua xyoo ntawm kev sim zoo li pom tseeb, tab sis thaum nws tag nrho pib nrog random crosses. Cov neeg nrhiav kom tau nyuj nrog cov mis nyuj ntau dua, npua loj thiab yaj nrog cov ntaub plaub tuab. Cov no yog thawj zaug, tsis yog kev tshawb fawb, kev sim. Txawm li cas los xij, nws yog qhov yuav tsum tau ua ua ntej uas tau coj mus rau qhov tshwm sim ntawm kev tshawb fawb xws li cov noob caj noob ces classic. Txog rau thaum xyoo pua 20th, kev sib sau ua ke yog tib txoj kev paub thiab muaj kev tshawb fawb. Nws yog cov txiaj ntsig ntawm cov noob caj noob ces tau dhau los ua qhov tseem ceeb ntawm kev tshawb fawb niaj hnub ntawm biology.
Molecular noob caj noob ces
Nov yog ib ntu uas kawm tag nrho cov qauv uas raug rau cov txheej txheem ntawm qib molecular. Cov cuab yeej tseem ceeb tshaj plaws ntawm tag nrho cov kab mob muaj sia yog kev hloov pauv, uas yog, lawv muaj peev xwm los ntawm ib tiam dhau ib tiam los khaws cov yam ntxwv tseem ceeb ntawm lawv lub cev, nrog rau cov qauv ntawm cov txheej txheem metabolic thiab cov lus teb rau ntau yam ib puag ncig. Qhov no yog vim lub fact tias nyob rau hauv lub molecular theem, tshwj xeeb tshuaj sau tseg thiab khaws tag nrho cov ntaub ntawv tau txais, thiab ces kis nws mus rau lwm tiam neeg thaum lub sij hawm tus txheej txheem ntawm fertilization. Qhov kev tshawb pom ntawm cov tshuaj no thiab lawv cov kev tshawb fawb tom ntej tau dhau los ua tsaug rau txoj kev tshawb fawb ntawm cov qauv ntawm tes ntawm cov tshuaj lom neeg. Nov yog qhov nucleic acids, lub hauv paus ntawm cov khoom siv caj ces, tau tshawb pom.
Discovery of "hereditary molecules"
Cov noob caj noob ces niaj hnub paub yuav luag txhua yam ntawm nucleic acids, tab sis, tau kawg, qhov no tsis yog ib txwm muaj. Thawj qhov kev tawm tswv yim hais tias cov tshuaj tuaj yeem muaj feem cuam tshuam txog kev xeeb tub tau muab tso rau hauv lub xyoo pua 19th xwb. Lub sijhawm ntawd, biochemist F. Miescher thiab cov kwv tij biologist Hertwig tab tom kawm txog qhov teeb meem no. Xyoo 1928, tus kws tshawb fawb Lavxias N. K. Koltsov, raws li cov txiaj ntsig ntawm kev tshawb fawb, tau hais tias tag nrho cov khoom muaj txiaj ntsig ntawm cov kab mob muaj sia nyob yog encoded thiab muab tso rau hauv qhov loj heev "hereditary molecules". Nyob rau tib lub sijhawm, nws tau hais tias cov molecules no muaj cov kab txuas txuas, uas, qhov tseeb, yog cov noob. Nws yeej yog ib qho kev tawg. Koltsov kuj tau txiav txim siab tias cov "hloov molecules" no tau ntim rau hauv cov hlwb rau hauv cov qauv tshwj xeeb hu ua chromosomes. Tom qab ntawd, qhov kev xav no tau lees paub thiab muab lub zog rau txoj kev loj hlob ntawm kev tshawb fawb hauv lub xyoo pua 20th.
Kev txhim kho kev tshawb fawb hauv xyoo pua 20th
Txoj kev loj hlob ntawm noob caj noob ces thiab kev tshawb fawb ntxiv tau coj mus rau ntau qhov kev tshawb pom tseem ceeb sib npaug. Nws tau pom tias txhua tus chromosome hauv ib lub xovtooj ntawm tes tsuas muaj ib qho DNA loj loj, muaj ob txoj hlua. Nws ntau ntu yog cov noob. Lawv lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb yog tias lawv encode cov ntaub ntawv hais txog cov qauv ntawm cov enzyme proteins hauv txoj kev tshwj xeeb. Tab sis kev siv cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm yav dhau los rau hauv qee yam kev ua tau zoo nrog kev koom tes ntawm lwm hom nucleic acid - RNA. Nws yog synthesized ntawm DNA thiab ua cov ntawv luam ntawm cov noob. Nws kuj tseem hloov cov ntaub ntawv mus rau ribosomes, qhov twg nws tshwm simsynthesis ntawm enzymatic proteins. Cov qauv ntawm DNA tau piav qhia hauv xyoo 1953, thiab RNA - ntawm 1961 thiab 1964.
Txij thaum ntawd los, cov noob caj noob ces molecular pib tsim los ntawm leaps thiab ciam teb. Cov kev tshawb pom no tau dhau los ua lub hauv paus ntawm kev tshawb fawb, raws li cov qauv ntawm kev xa tawm cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm tau tshwm sim. Cov txheej txheem no yog ua tiav ntawm qib molecular hauv cov hlwb. Tseem ceeb cov ntaub ntawv tshiab txog kev khaws cov ntaub ntawv hauv cov noob kuj tau txais. Thaum lub sij hawm, nws tau tsim yuav ua li cas cov txheej txheem ntawm DNA duplication tshwm sim ua ntej cell division (replication), cov txheej txheem ntawm kev nyeem cov ntaub ntawv los ntawm ib tug RNA molecule (transcription), thiab cov synthesis ntawm protein enzymes (kev txhais lus). Cov hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm kev hloov pauv hauv kev hloov pauv kuj tau tshawb pom thiab lawv lub luag haujlwm hauv ib puag ncig sab hauv thiab sab nraud ntawm cov hlwb tau qhia meej.
Deciphering tus qauv ntawm DNA
Txoj kev ntawm cov noob caj noob ces tau tsim muaj zog heev. Qhov kev ua tiav tseem ceeb tshaj plaws yog kev txiav txim siab ntawm chromosomal DNA. Nws muab tawm tias tsuas muaj ob hom ntawm cov saw seem. Lawv txawv ntawm ib leeg nyob rau hauv kev npaj ntawm nucleotides. Nyob rau hauv thawj hom, txhua qhov chaw yog thawj, uas yog, nws yog inherent nyob rau hauv uniqueness. Qhov thib ob muaj ntau tus lej sib txawv ntawm kev ua ntu zus tsis tu ncua. Lawv hu ua repetitions. Xyoo 1973, qhov tseeb tau tsim los ntawm cov chaw tshwj xeeb yog ib txwm cuam tshuam los ntawm qee cov noob. Ib ntu ib txwm xaus nrog kev rov ua dua. Qhov sib txawv no encodes qee cov proteins enzymatic, nws yog los ntawm lawv tias RNA "orients" thaum nyeem cov ntaub ntawv los ntawm DNA.
Thawj qhov kev tshawb pom hauv genetic engineering
Txoj kev tshiab ntawm noob caj noob ces coj mus rau kev tshawb pom ntxiv. Ib qho khoom tshwj xeeb ntawm txhua yam muaj sia nyob tau tshwm sim. Peb tab tom tham txog lub peev xwm los kho thaj chaw puas hauv DNA saw. Lawv tuaj yeem tshwm sim los ntawm ntau yam kev cuam tshuam tsis zoo. Lub peev xwm kho tus kheej tau raug hu ua "tus txheej txheem ntawm kev kho caj ces". Tam sim no, ntau tus kws tshawb fawb tseem ceeb tau qhia txog kev cia siab, txaus txhawb los ntawm qhov tseeb, tias nws yuav muaj peev xwm "snatch" qee cov noob ntawm lub cell. Nws muab tau dab tsi? Ua ntej tshaj plaws, muaj peev xwm tshem tawm cov kab mob caj ces. Genetic engineering yog kev kawm txog cov teeb meem no.
txheej txheem rov ua dua
Molecular genetics kawm txog cov txheej txheem ntawm kev sib kis ntawm cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm thaum yug me nyuam. Preservation ntawm invariance ntawm cov ntaub ntawv encoded nyob rau hauv cov noob yog ua kom ntseeg tau los ntawm nws lub sij hawm yug me nyuam thaum lub sij hawm cell division. Tag nrho cov txheej txheem ntawm cov txheej txheem no tau kawm kom ntxaws. Nws muab tawm tias tam sim ntawd ua ntej kev faib cell tshwm sim, replication tshwm sim. Qhov no yog txheej txheem ntawm DNA duplication. Nws yog nrog los ntawm ib tug kiag li kev luam ntawm cov thawj molecules raws li txoj cai ntawm complementarity. Nws paub tias tsuas muaj plaub hom nucleotides hauv DNA strand. Cov no yog guanine, adenine, cytosine thiab thymine. Raws li txoj cai ntawm complementarity, nrhiav tau los ntawm cov kws tshawb fawb F. Crick thiab D. Watson hauv xyoo 1953, nyob rau hauv cov qauv ntawm ob txoj hlua ntawm DNA, thymine sib raug rau adenine, thiab guanyl sib raug rau cytidyl nucleotide. Thaum lub sij hawm replication txheej txheem, txhua strand ntawm DNA yog theej raws nraim los ntawm kev hloov cov nucleotide xav tau.
Txiv Neej –science tseem hluas. Cov txheej txheem ntawm replication tsuas yog kawm nyob rau hauv 1950s. Nyob rau tib lub sijhawm, enzyme DNA polymerase tau tshawb pom. Hauv xyoo 1970, tom qab ntau xyoo ntawm kev tshawb fawb, nws tau pom tias kev rov ua dua tshiab yog txheej txheem ntau theem. Ntau ntau hom DNA polymerases ncaj qha koom nrog hauv kev sib txuas ntawm DNA molecules.
Txiv neej thiab kev noj qab haus huv
Txhua cov ntaub ntawv ntsig txog kev tsim cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm yav dhau los thaum DNA rov ua cov txheej txheem yog siv dav hauv kev kho mob niaj hnub no. Ua tib zoo kawm cov qauv yog cov yam ntxwv ntawm ob qho tib si kab mob noj qab haus huv thiab nyob rau hauv cov xwm txheej ntawm kev hloov pauv pathological hauv lawv. Piv txwv li, nws tau raug pov thawj thiab lees paub los ntawm kev sim ua kom kho tau qee yam kab mob tuaj yeem ua tiav nrog kev cuam tshuam sab nraud ntawm cov txheej txheem ntawm kev rov ua dua ntawm cov khoom siv caj ces thiab kev faib cov hlwb somatic. Tshwj xeeb tshaj yog yog hais tias lub pathology ntawm kev ua hauj lwm ntawm lub cev yog txuam nrog cov txheej txheem metabolic. Piv txwv li, cov kab mob xws li rickets thiab impaired phosphorus metabolism yog ncaj qha los ntawm inhibition ntawm DNA replication. Koj tuaj yeem hloov lub xeev no los ntawm sab nraud li cas? Twb tau synthesized thiab sim tshuaj uas txhawb cov txheej txheem tsim txom. Lawv qhib DNA replication. Qhov no pab txhawb rau normalization thiab kho cov kab mob pathological cuam tshuam nrog tus kab mob. Tab sis kev tshawb nrhiav caj ces tsis nyob twj ywm. Txhua xyoo tau txais cov ntaub ntawv ntau ntxiv uas pab tsis tau tsuas yog kho, tab sis tiv thaiv kab mob.
Txiv neej thiab tshuaj
Molecular noob caj noob ces cuam tshuam nrog ntau yam teeb meem kev noj qab haus huv. Cov kab mob biology ntawm qee cov kab mob thiab cov kab mob yog xws li tias lawv cov haujlwm hauv tib neeg lub cev qee zaum ua rau tsis ua tiav ntawm DNA replication. Nws kuj tau raug tsim los lawm tias qhov ua rau ntawm qee yam kab mob tsis yog qhov inhibition ntawm cov txheej txheem no, tab sis nws cov haujlwm ntau dhau. Ua ntej tshaj plaws, cov no yog kab mob thiab kab mob. Lawv yog vim qhov tseeb hais tias cov kab mob pathogenic microbes pib nce sai hauv cov hlwb thiab cov ntaub so ntswg. Cov kab mob no kuj suav nrog cov kab mob oncological.
Tam sim no, muaj ntau cov tshuaj uas tuaj yeem cuam tshuam DNA rov ua dua tshiab hauv cell. Lawv feem ntau yog synthesized los ntawm Soviet cov kws tshawb fawb. Cov tshuaj no tau siv dav hauv kev kho mob. Cov no suav nrog, piv txwv li, ib pawg tshuaj tiv thaiv kab mob. Kuj tseem muaj cov tshuaj tua kab mob uas inhibit cov txheej txheem ntawm kev rov ua dua thiab faib cov kab mob pathological thiab microbial hlwb. Lawv pab lub cev sai sai nrog cov neeg sawv cev txawv teb chaws, tiv thaiv lawv los ntawm kev sib npaug. Cov tshuaj no muab kev kho mob zoo heev rau cov kab mob loj tshaj plaws. Thiab cov nyiaj no tshwj xeeb tshaj yog siv dav hauv kev kho mob qog thiab neoplasms. Qhov no yog ib qho tseem ceeb cov lus qhia xaiv los ntawm lub koom haum ntawm noob caj noob ces ntawm Russia. Txhua xyoo muaj cov tshuaj kho tshiab uas tiv thaiv kev txhim kho ntawm oncology. Qhov no ua rau muaj kev cia siab rau ntau txhiab tus neeg mob thoob ntiaj teb.
txheej txheem sau thiab txhais lus
Tom qab kev simKev sim kuaj ntshav ntawm cov noob caj noob ces thiab cov txiaj ntsig ntawm lub luag haujlwm ntawm DNA thiab cov noob yog cov qauv rau kev tsim cov protein ntau, rau qee lub sijhawm cov kws tshawb fawb tau qhia cov kev xav tias cov amino acids tau sib sau ua ke rau hauv ntau cov molecules txoj cai nyob rau hauv lub nucleus. Tab sis tom qab tau txais cov ntaub ntawv tshiab, nws tau pom tseeb tias qhov no tsis yog li ntawd. Amino acids tsis yog tsim los ntawm cov noob hauv DNA. Nws tau pom tias cov txheej txheem nyuaj no ua rau ntau theem. Ua ntej, cov ntawv luam tseeb yog tsim los ntawm cov noob - tub txib RNA. Cov molecules no tawm hauv lub cell nucleus thiab txav mus rau cov qauv tshwj xeeb - ribosomes. Nws yog nyob rau ntawm cov organelles uas sib dhos ntawm cov amino acids thiab protein synthesis tshwm sim. Tus txheej txheem ntawm kev luam cov DNA yog hu ua transcription. Thiab cov synthesis ntawm cov protein nyob rau hauv kev tswj ntawm tus tub txib RNA yog "kev txhais lus". Kev kawm txog cov txheej txheem tseeb ntawm cov txheej txheem no thiab cov hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm kev cuam tshuam rau lawv yog cov teeb meem niaj hnub tseem ceeb hauv cov noob caj noob ces ntawm cov qauv molecular.
Qhov tseem ceeb ntawm kev sau thiab txhais cov txheej txheem hauv tshuaj
Nyob rau xyoo tas los no, nws tau pom meej tias kev txiav txim siab zoo ntawm txhua theem ntawm kev sau thiab txhais lus yog qhov tseem ceeb rau kev kho mob niaj hnub no. Lub koom haum ntawm Genetics ntawm Lavxias teb sab Academy ntawm Sciences tau ntev tau lees paub qhov tseeb hais tias nrog rau kev loj hlob ntawm yuav luag txhua yam kab mob, muaj ib tug intensive synthesis ntawm tshuaj lom thiab tsuas muaj teeb meem proteins rau tib neeg lub cev. Cov txheej txheem no tuaj yeem ua raws li kev tswj hwm ntawm cov noob uas ib txwm tsis ua haujlwm. Los yog nws yog ib qho kev qhia synthesis, rau cov kab mob pathogenic thiab cov kab mob uas tau nkag mus rau hauv tib neeg lub hlwb thiab cov ntaub so ntswg yog lub luag haujlwm. Tsis tas li ntawd, kev tsim cov proteins tsis zoo tuaj yeem ua taunkoos nquag tsim oncological neoplasms. Tias yog vim li cas kev kawm tag nrho cov theem ntawm kev sau thiab txhais lus yog tam sim no tseem ceeb heev. Txoj kev no koj tuaj yeem txheeb xyuas txoj hauv kev los tawm tsam tsis yog tsuas yog kis kab mob txaus ntshai xwb, tab sis kuj mob qog noj ntshav.
Cov noob caj noob ces niaj hnub yog kev tshawb nrhiav txuas ntxiv rau cov txheej txheem ntawm kev txhim kho cov kab mob thiab tshuaj rau lawv txoj kev kho. Tam sim no nws yog twb muaj peev xwm mus inhibit kev txhais lus nyob rau hauv lub cev cuam tshuam los yog lub cev tag nrho, yog li suppressing o. Hauv txoj ntsiab cai, nws yog qhov tseeb ntawm qhov kev txiav txim ntawm cov tshuaj tua kab mob uas paub ntau, piv txwv li, tetracycline lossis streptomycin, yog tsim. Tag nrho cov tshuaj no xaiv inhibit kev txhais lus hauv hlwb.
Qhov tseem ceeb ntawm kev tshawb fawb rau hauv cov txheej txheem genetic recombination
tseem ceeb heev rau cov tshuaj kuj yog ib qho kev kawm ntxaws txog cov txheej txheem ntawm kev sib txuas ntawm caj ces, uas yog lub luag haujlwm rau kev hloov pauv thiab hloov pauv ntawm cov chromosomes thiab tib neeg cov noob. Qhov no yog ib qho tseem ceeb hauv kev tsim cov kab mob sib kis. Genetic recombination underlies qhov nkag mus rau hauv tib neeg lub hlwb thiab kev taw qhia ntawm txawv teb chaws, feem ntau kis kab mob, khoom rau hauv DNA. Raws li qhov tshwm sim, muaj kev sib txuas ntawm ribosomes ntawm cov protein uas tsis yog "haiv neeg" rau lub cev, tab sis cov kab mob rau nws. Raws li txoj cai no, kev tsim tawm ntawm tag nrho cov kab mob ntawm cov kab mob tshwm sim hauv cov hlwb. Cov txheej txheem ntawm tib neeg caj ces yog tsom rau kev tsim cov txhais tau tias los tawm tsam cov kab mob sib kis thiab tiv thaiv kev sib sau ntawm cov kab mob pathogenic. Tsis tas li ntawd, cov ntaub ntawv khaws tseg ntawm cov noob caj noob ces ua kom nkag siab txog lub hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm kev sib pauv noob.nruab nrab ntawm cov kab mob, ua rau muaj qhov tshwm sim ntawm cov noob hloov pauv cov nroj tsuag thiab tsiaj txhu.
Qhov tseem ceeb ntawm cov noob caj noob ces molecular rau biology thiab tshuaj
Ntau xyoo dhau los, kev tshawb pom, thawj zaug hauv cov qauv qub thiab tom qab ntawd hauv cov noob caj noob ces, tau muaj qhov loj, thiab txawm tias txiav txim siab, cuam tshuam rau kev nce qib ntawm txhua yam kev tshawb fawb lom neeg. Tshuaj tau nce ntau heev. Kev nce qib hauv kev tshawb fawb noob caj noob ces tau ua rau nws nkag siab txog cov txheej txheem ib zaug uas tsis tuaj yeem nkag siab txog kev xeeb tub ntawm caj ces thiab kev loj hlob ntawm tib neeg tus yam ntxwv. Nws kuj tseem ceeb npaum li cas sai npaum li cas qhov kev tshawb fawb no tau loj hlob los ntawm cov theoretical nkaus xwb mus rau qhov ua tau zoo. Nws tau dhau los ua qhov tseem ceeb rau cov tshuaj niaj hnub. Ib txoj kev tshawb fawb ntxaws ntxaws ntawm cov noob caj noob ces molecular tau ua lub hauv paus rau kev nkag siab txog cov txheej txheem tshwm sim hauv lub cev ntawm tus neeg mob thiab tus neeg noj qab haus huv. Nws yog cov noob caj noob ces muab lub zog rau txoj kev loj hlob ntawm cov kev tshawb fawb xws li virology, microbiology, endocrinology, pharmacology thiab immunology.
