Tshuaj, lub cev khoom ntawm cov khoom

2024 Tus sau: Angel Austin | [email protected]. Kawg hloov kho: 2023-12-17 05:28

Hnub no, muaj txog 2.5 lab ntau lub tebchaw ntawm ob lub hauv paus chiv keeb thiab cov khoom tsim los ntawm tib neeg. Tag nrho cov ntawm lawv txawv heev, ib txhia ntawm lawv yog irreplaceable koom nyob rau hauv cov txheej txheem lom uas tshwm sim nyob rau hauv cov kab mob nyob. Cov tshuaj sib txawv ntawm ib leeg los ntawm cov khoom ntawm cov khoom. Cov yam ntxwv thiab dab tsi ntxiv tso cai rau koj txheeb xyuas cov tshuaj molecule tshwj xeeb, peb yuav xav txog ntxiv.

Dab tsi yog yam khoom?

Yog tias koj txhais lub tswvyim no, koj yuav tsum taw qhia nws txoj kev sib txuas nrog lub cev. Tom qab tag nrho, nws yog txoj cai los xav txog cov khoom uas cov cev no tau tsim. Yog li, iav, hlau, sulfur, ntoo yog cov khoom. Cov piv txwv tuaj yeem muab tau tas li. Nws yooj yim dua rau kev nkag siab cov hauv qab no: lo lus nyob rau hauv kev txiav txim siab yog hais txog txhua qhov sib txawv ntawm cov khoom sib txawv ntawm cov molecules uas muaj nyob hauv lub ntiaj teb, nrog rau cov khoom yooj yim monatomic.

Yog li, dej, cawv, acids, alkalis, proteins, carbohydrates, ntsev, qab zib, xuab zeb, av nplaum, pob zeb diamond, gases, thiab lwm yam - cov no yog tag nrho cov khoom. Cov piv txwv tso cai rau koj kom paub meej qhov tseem ceeb ntawm lub tswv yim no.

Lub cev lub cev yog ib yam khoom uas tsim los ntawm xwm lossis tib neeg los ntawm ntau lub tebchaw. Piv txwv li, iav yog lub cev uasyog ua los ntawm iav, thiab daim ntawv ntawm daim ntawv yog lub cev, uas yog ua tiav pulp los yog ntoo.

Tau kawg, txhua lub molecules txawv. Dab tsi hauv qab lawv qhov txawv yog hu ua lawv cov khoom - lub cev, organoleptic thiab tshuaj. Lawv txiav txim siab siv txoj kev tshwj xeeb, uas txhua qhov kev tshawb fawb muaj nws tus kheej. Nws tuaj yeem ua lej, ntsuas, ntsuas, ntsuas ntsuas, thiab ntau ntau ntau yam. Piv txwv li, kev tshawb fawb ntawm chemistry siv rau txhua yam khoom, los yog, rau nws tus kheej, nws cov reagent. Nws raug xaiv raws li cov yam ntxwv ntawm cov molecule thiab kev kwv yees ntawm cov khoom siv tshuaj. Tom qab ntawd nws tau txheeb xyuas qhov kev sim, pom zoo thiab kho nyob rau hauv lub hauv paus theoretical.

Kev faib cov tshuaj

Kev faib cov sib xyaw ua ke tuaj yeem ua raws li ntau yam sib txawv. Piv txwv li, aggregate xeev. Tag nrho lawv tuaj yeem yog plaub hom raws li qhov xwm txheej no:

• plasma;
• gas;
• kua;
• crystalline khoom (khoom).

Yog tias peb ua raws li qhov "qhov tob" ntxiv, ces txhua yam khoom tuaj yeem muab faib ua:

• organic - raws li cov chains thiab cycles ntawm carbon thiab hydrogen atoms;
• inorganic - txhua leej txhua tus.

Raws li lub hauv paus muaj pes tsawg leeg, uas cuam tshuam cov qauv ntawm cov tshuaj, txhua tus ntawm lawv yog:

• simple - los ntawm ib hom tshuaj atom;
• nyuaj - ob lossis ntau hom sib txawv.

Thiab,yooj yim muab faib ua hlau thiab tsis yog hlau. Cov tshuaj muaj ntau yam: ntsev, bases, acids, oxides, esters, hydrocarbons, cawv, nucleic acids, thiab lwm yam.

Ntau hom qauv sib xyaw

Dab tsi yog qhov pom, uas yog, duab, tso saib kev sib txuas? Tau kawg, cov no yog cov qauv ntawm cov khoom. Lawv txawv. Nyob ntawm cov hom, cov ntaub ntawv muaj nyob rau hauv lawv txog cov molecule kuj txawv. Yog li, muaj cov kev xaiv zoo li no:

1. Empirical, lossis molecular. Reflects lub quantitative thiab qualitative muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm cov khoom. Nws suav nrog cov cim ntawm cov ntsiab lus tseem ceeb thiab qhov ntsuas nyob rau hauv qab sab laug ces kaum ntawm nws, uas qhia tus nqi ntawm no atom nyob rau hauv lub molecule. Piv txwv li, N₂O, Na₂SO₄, AL₂ (SO₄)₃.
2. electronic graphics. Cov mis no qhia cov naj npawb ntawm valence electrons rau txhua lub caij uas ua rau cov khoom sib xyaw. Yog li ntawd, raws li qhov kev xaiv no, nws twb muaj peev xwm kwv yees qee yam tshuaj thiab lub cev ntawm cov khoom.
3. Nyob rau hauv cov organic chemistry, nws yog kev cai siv tag nrho thiab abbreviated qauv qauv. Lawv cuam tshuam qhov kev txiav txim ntawm kev sib txuas ntawm cov atoms hauv cov molecules, ntxiv rau, lawv qhia meej txog cov khoom ntawm cov khoom rau ib chav kawm ntawm cov tebchaw. Thiab qhov no tso cai rau koj los txiav txim siab txog yam tshwj xeeb ntawm cov molecule thiab kwv yees tag nrho cov kev sib cuam tshuam ntawm nws.

Yog li ntawd, cov cim tshuaj lom neeg thiab cov qauv tsim kom raug ntawm cov tebchaw yog qhov tseem ceeb tshaj plaws ntawm kev ua haujlwm nrog txhua yam khoom paub. Cov no yog lub hauv paus theoretical koj yuav tsum paubtxhua tus tub kawm chemistry.

Lub cev muaj zog

Ib tus yam ntxwv tseem ceeb heev yog lub cev muaj zog ntawm cov khoom. Dab tsi yog pab pawg no?

1. Aggregate xeev nyob rau hauv ntau yam xwm txheej, suav nrog cov qauv.
2. Boiling, melting, khov, evaporation kub.
3. Cov yam ntxwv ntawm Organoleptic: xim, tsw, saj.
4. Solubility hauv dej thiab lwm yam kuab tshuaj (organic, piv txwv li).
5. ntom thiab fluidity, viscosity.
6. Hluav taws xob thiab thermal conductivity, tshav kub muaj peev xwm.
7. Electrical permeability.
8. Radioactivity.
9. Absorption thiab emission.
10. Inductance.

Tseem kuj tseem muaj ntau qhov ntsuas uas tseem ceeb heev rau cov npe ua tiav uas qhia txog cov khoom ntawm cov khoom. Txawm li cas los xij, lawv nyob nruab nrab ntawm lub cev thiab tshuaj. Nov yog:

• electrode peev xwm;
• hom siv lead ua lattice;
• electronegativity;
• hardness thiab brittleness;

Y

• ductility thiab ductility;
• volatility lossis volatility;
• lom cuam tshuam rau cov kab mob muaj sia (tshuaj lom, ua tsis taus pa, paj hlwb tuag tes tuag taw, nruab nrab, muaj txiaj ntsig, thiab lwm yam).

Ntau zaus cov ntsuas no tau hais meej meej thaum cov khoom siv tshuaj lom neeg ntawm cov khoom raug txiav txim ncaj qha. Txawm li cas los xij, koj tuaj yeem hais qhia lawv hauv ntu lub cev, uas yuav tsis yog qhov yuam kev.

tshuaj muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm cov khoom

Pab pawg no suav nrogtag nrho cov ua tau ntawm kev sib cuam tshuam ntawm cov molecule suav nrog lwm yam yooj yim thiab complex tshuaj. Ntawd yog, cov no yog cov tshuaj tiv thaiv ncaj qha. Rau txhua hom kev sib txuas, lawv nruj me ntsis tshwj xeeb. Txawm li cas los xij, cov cuab yeej pab pawg tau sib txawv rau tag nrho cov khoom siv.

Piv txwv li, tag nrho cov kua qaub muaj peev xwm ua rau cov hlau ua raws li lawv txoj haujlwm hauv electrochemical series ntawm hlau voltages. Tsis tas li ntawd, tag nrho cov yam ntxwv ntawm neutralization tshwm sim nrog alkalis, kev cuam tshuam nrog insoluble bases. Txawm li cas los xij, cov concentrated sulfuric thiab nitric acids yog tshwj xeeb, vim tias cov khoom ntawm lawv cov kev cuam tshuam nrog cov hlau txawv ntawm cov uas tau txais los ntawm kev cuam tshuam nrog lwm tus neeg hauv chav kawm.

Txhua yam khoom muaj ntau yam tshuaj lom neeg. Lawv tus lej yog txiav txim siab los ntawm kev ua haujlwm ntawm cov khoom sib xyaw, uas yog, muaj peev xwm ua rau muaj kev cuam tshuam nrog lwm cov khoom. Muaj ntau reactive, muaj xyaum inert. Qhov no yog ib qho kev qhia nruj me ntsis.

yam yooj yim

Cov no suav nrog cov uas muaj tib hom atoms, tab sis ntawm cov lej sib txawv. Piv txwv li, S_8, O_2, O_3, Au, N _2, P _4, CL _2, Ar thiab lwm yam.

Cov khoom siv tshuaj ntawm cov khoom yooj yim raug txo kom muaj kev cuam tshuam nrog:

• metals;
• non-metals;
• dej;
• acids;
• alkalis thiab amphoteric hydroxides;
• organic compounds;
• ntsev;
• oxides;
• peroxides thiab anhydrides thiab lwm yammolecules.

Dua, nws yuav tsum tau taw qhia tias qhov no yog tus yam ntxwv tshwj xeeb rau txhua kis tshwj xeeb. Yog li ntawd, lub cev thiab tshuaj lom neeg cov khoom ntawm cov khoom yooj yim raug txiav txim siab ntawm tus kheej.

Cov Khoom Sib Tw

pawg no suav nrog cov tebchaw uas nws cov molecules tsim los ntawm ob lossis ntau dua cov tshuaj sib txawv. Tus naj npawb ntawm txhua tus ntawm lawv tuaj yeem sib txawv. Rau kev nkag siab, ntawm no yog ob peb yam piv txwv yooj yim:

• H₃PO₄;
• K₃[Fe(CN)₆];
• Cu(OH)₂;
• LiF;
• AL₂O₃ thiab lwm yam.

Vim tias lawv txhua tus muaj nyob rau hauv cov chav kawm sib txawv ntawm cov tshuaj, nws yog tsis yooj yim sua kom cais tawm cov yam ntxwv ntawm lub cev thiab tshuaj lom neeg rau txhua tus. Cov no yog cov khoom tshwj xeeb, peculiar thiab tus kheej hauv txhua kis.

Inorganic substances

Hnub no muaj tshaj 500 txhiab. Muaj ob qho yooj yim thiab complex. Nyob rau hauv tag nrho, ob peb lub ntsiab ntawm cov inorganic tebchaw yuav txawv, uas sawv cev rau tag nrho lawv ntau haiv neeg.

1. Cov tshuaj yooj yim hlau.
2. Oxides.
3. Cov tshuaj yooj yim tsis yog hlau.
4. Noble lossis inert gases.

Peroxides.

YAnhydrides.

5. Volatile hydrogen compounds.
6. Hydrides.
7. Sats.
8. Acids.
9. Foundations.
10. Amphoteric compounds.

Txhua tus neeg sawv cev ntawm txhua chav kawm muaj nws tus kheej lub cevCov khoom siv tshuaj lom neeg uas tso cai rau nws kom paub qhov txawv ntawm lwm cov tebchaw thiab txheeb xyuas.

Khoom ntawm cov khoom organic

Organics yog ib ceg ntawm chemistry uas cuam tshuam nrog kev kawm ntawm cov tebchaw uas tsis yog inorganic thiab lawv cov khoom. Lawv cov qauv yog ua raws li cov pa roj carbon atoms uas tuaj yeem sib xyaw ua ke hauv ntau yam qauv:

• linear thiab branched chains;
• cycles;
• aromatic rings;
• heterocycles.

Cov kab mob nyob hauv tsuas yog cov khoom sib txuas, vim lub hauv paus ntawm lub neej yog cov protein, rog thiab carbohydrates. Tag nrho cov ntawm lawv yog cov neeg sawv cev ntawm cov organic tshuaj. Yog li ntawd, lawv cov khoom yog tshwj xeeb. Txawm li cas los xij, txawm li cas los xij, txawm tias hom molecule peb tab tom tham txog, nws tseem yuav muaj qee yam ntawm cov khoom siv physico-chemical uas peb tau hais ua ntej.

Dab tsi yog qhov tseem ceeb ntawm txoj sia?

Kev ua neej yog cov khoom siv los ntawm tag nrho cov biomass ntawm peb lub ntiaj teb tsim. Qhov ntawd yog, cov kab mob uas ua rau lub neej ntawm nws:

• kab mob thiab kab mob;
• simple;
• paj;
• tsiaj;
• nceb;
• people.

Vim qhov tseem ceeb ntawm cov khoom sib txuas hauv cov khoom muaj sia nyob yog cov organic, nws yog qhov tseeb lawv tuaj yeem raug ntaus nqi rau pawg ntawm cov khoom muaj sia. Txawm li cas los xij, tsis yog tag nrho. Tsuas yog cov uas tsis muaj qhov muaj nyob ntawm cov neeg sawv cev ntawm lub neej biosphere yog tsis yooj yim sua. Cov no yog cov proteins, nucleic acids, cov tshuaj hormones, vitamins, rog, carbohydrates, amino acids thiab lwm yam. Lo lus "muaj sia nyob" tau qhiaVernadsky, tus tsim ntawm cov lus qhuab qhia ntawm lub ntiaj teb biosphere.

Khoom muaj nyob:

• muaj lub zog nrog qhov ua tau ntawm nws qhov kev hloov pauv;
• kev tswj tus kheej;
• free txav;
• kev hloov pauv tiam;
• ntau yam.

Crystals thiab metallic tshuaj

Crystalline yog hais txog txhua qhov sib txuas uas muaj qee yam ntawm cov qauv spatial lattice. Muaj cov tebchaw uas muaj atomic, molecular lossis metallic crystal lattice. Nyob ntawm seb hom, cov khoom ntawm crystalline tshuaj kuj txawv. Cov khoom sib xyaw ua ke nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm finely los yog coarsely dispersed crystals yog ntau yam ntsev.

Tseem tseem muaj cov khoom yooj yim nrog cov qauv zoo sib xws, xws li pob zeb diamond lossis graphite, pob zeb muaj nuj nqis thiab ib nrab muaj nuj nqis, cov zaub mov, pob zeb. Lawv cov khoom tseem ceeb:

• hardness;
• fragility;
• nruab nrab melting thiab boiling point.

Txawm li cas los xij, txhua tus yam ntxwv yuav tsis raug rau txhua tus.

Cov khoom hlau ntawm ib yam khoom yog qhia los ntawm cov hlau, lawv cov alloys. Rau lawv, cov txheej txheem sib txawv tuaj yeem paub qhov txawv:

Y

ductility thiab ductility;

kub kub, melting point;

hluav taws xob thiab thermal conductivity;

metallic luster.