Cov paib saum toj kawg nkaus thiab cov npe

2024 Tus sau: Angel Austin | [email protected]. Kawg hloov kho: 2023-12-17 05:28

Cov khoom nyob hauv av raug xa mus rau hauv daim ntawv qhia ua cov cim tshwj xeeb.

Cov paib saum toj saud yog cov cim raws cai uas xaiv ntau yam khoom ntawm thaj chaw hauv daim duab hauv cov phiaj xwm saum toj saud thiab daim duab qhia chaw. Muaj coob tus ntawm lawv, thiab txhua tus feem ntau yog ntaus nqi rau ib pab pawg.

Cov paib saum toj thiab lawv cov npe

Tag nrho cov paib cim tuaj yeem muab faib ua peb pawg:

1. Kev piav qhia.

Cov no yog tag nrho cov cim uas tsis raug xa mus rau lwm pab pawg. Lawv qhia cov yam ntxwv ntxiv ntawm cov khoom hauv av. Qhov ntawd yog, lawv tsis tuaj yeem muaj nyob ntawm lawv tus kheej, tab sis tsuas yog muab cov ncauj lus kom ntxaws ntxiv txog cov khoom ntawm cov nplai thiab contour hom.

Piv txwv li: ib lub hav zoov tau piav qhia hauv daim ntawv qhia, thiab tsob ntoo deciduous tau ntxiv rau hauv daim duab, uas yuav qhia txog hom nroj tsuag thiab lawv hnub nyoog.

Tsis tas li, hom kab lus saum toj no suav nrog lwm cov npe:

• tus lej (siv los qhia tus naj npawb ntawm qee yam - qib dej qis ntawm thaj chaw dej, cov ntsiab lus siab tshaj plaws ntawm kev nyem, thiab lwm yam);
• kos npe (siv rauCov npe ntawm cov khoom tsim nyog - kev sib haum xeeb, cov dej ntws, thiab lwm yam, kev qhia tshwj xeeb ntawm hom kev lag luam - lub pob zeb lossis cib cog, kev piav qhia ntawm cov tsev uas tsis muaj lawv tus kheej tsim, tab sis sawv ntawm kev ua haujlwm - tsev kho mob, railway lub rooj muag zaub, thiab lwm yam; Cov yam ntxwv ntau ntawm cov khoom - qhov tob, qhov siab, thiab lwm yam).

2. Daim ntawv qhia (scale).

Cov no yog cov paib saum toj kawg nkaus uas tuaj yeem nthuav tawm ntawm qhov ntsuas ntawm lub phiaj xwm lossis daim ntawv qhia.

Cov cim zoo li no yog siv los kos cov hav zoov, swamps thiab zaub vaj, pas dej, piv txwv li rau cov khoom uas tau nthuav tawm ntawm qhov ntsuas ntawm daim duab qhia chaw. Cov contours ntawm cov cim saum toj no feem ntau cuam tshuam txog thaj tsam ntawm cov khoom tiag tiag thiab qhia qee yam xim (ntsuab, xiav, dawb).

Inside lub contour yog sau nrog ib lub cim.

3. Off-scale.

Cov cim zoo li no suav nrog cov duab ntawm cov khoom me me uas nyuaj rau txheeb xyuas qhov ntsuas tiag tiag (piv txwv li, lub tsev teev ntuj, pej thuam, thiab lwm yam). Lawv cov naj npawb thiab cov tsis ncaj qha nyob ntawm qhov loj ntawm lub phiaj xwm lossis daim ntawv qhia. Ntawd yog, hauv cov phiaj xwm me me, lawv yuav me dua thiab ntau qhov me me.

Nws tseem tsim nyog sau cia tias cov ntsiab lus xws li ncej, ntoo thiab qhov dej tau kos rau ntawm cov phiaj xwm loj. Thiab qee cov cim hloov pauv raws li qhov ntsuas ntawm daim ntawv qhia.

Tshaj tawm-ntawm-qib cov paib saum toj kawg nkaus piv piv nrog cov contours nyob rau hauv uas lawv ib txwm qhia raws nraim qhov twg cov khoom lawv qhia nyob.

Tsis txhob hnov qab tias cov cim ntawm hom no tsis tuaj yeem qhia qhov tsis tseeb ntawm cov khoom, yog liNws tsis yog tsim nyog los ntsuas qhov loj ntawm cov paib xws li hauv daim ntawv qhia. Cov paib no suav nrog:

• chaw nres tsheb huab cua;
• caij nplooj ntoos hlav;
• roj av kuv.

4. Linear.

Cov no yog cov cim uas tau tshwm sim hauv qhov loj me nkaus xwb nyob rau qhov ntev (thiab tsis dav). Cov paib saum toj saud thiab lawv cov npe hauv cov duab tuaj yeem pom kev tsheb ciav hlau, cov kav dej roj, txoj kev loj, thiab lwm yam. Lawv tau cim nrog cov kab uas qhia qhov ntev ntawm cov khoom (hauv ib teev). Cov paib zoo li no yooj yim heev rau kev taw qhia.

Tseem muaj cov cim sib xyaw rau cov phiaj xwm saum toj thiab daim duab qhia chaw. Tshwj xeeb, cov cim nrog kos npe. Qee yam khoom raug cim rau ntawm no, suav nrog cov dej ntws uas cim nrog qhov nrawm ntawm qhov tam sim no.

Basic topographic symbols

daim duab qhia chaw thaj chaw:

1. Kev pab:

• kab rov tav;
• bergstrokes (kev taw qhia nqes hav);
• contour labels.

2. Lub zos thiab cov zos, chaw ua lag luam, txoj kev thiab kev sib txuas lus:

• chaw nres tsheb fais fab;
• kev ua haujlwm;
• cavods thiab factories nrog cov kav dej;
• hav zoov thiab teb txoj kev;
• vaj, zos, nroog.

3. Hydrography:

• zoo;
• dej thiab kwj;
• lake;
• hlau thiab ntoo txuas hniav;
• piers;
• dams;
• bogs.

4. Zaub:

• meadows;
• thaj av;
• txiav;
• vaj.

5. Ib qho isoline yog ib txoj kab uas txuas cov ntsiab lus nrog cov ntaub ntawv sib npaug ntawm cov kab qhia:

• isobars (sib npaug atmospheric siab);
• isotherms (sib npaug huab cua);
• isohypses (tseem hu ua kab rov tav) - sib npaug qhov siab ntawm lub ntiaj teb saum npoo.

Cov paib saum toj no yog siv ntawm qhov sib piv, suav nrog 1: 1 500, 5 000.

Ncua

Scale yog qhov piv ntawm qhov ntev ntawm ib qho khoom ntawm daim duab qhia lossis npaj rau nws qhov ntev. Qhov no txhais tau hais tias qhov no yog cov ntaub ntawv ntawm pes tsawg zaus ntawm chav tsev tsawg dua li lub sijhawm tiag tiag. Piv txwv li, koj yuav tsum ntsuas 1 cm ntawm qhov kev npaj topographic nrog cov paib paib thiab ntawm qhov ntsuas ntawm 1: 1,500. Qhov no qhia tias lub caij nyoog uas yog 1 cm ntawm daim ntawv qhia yuav yog 1,500 cm (15 m) hauv cheeb tsam tiag.

Scale tshwm sim:

nraaj

A) linear.

Nws tshwm sim tias qhov piv tsis sib npaug li 1 cm. Ces siv cov kab tawm. Qhov no yog cov cuab yeej pabcuam, tus pas ntsuas, uas yog siv los ua kom yooj yim rau kev ntsuas kev deb. Feem ntau qhov ntsuas no yog siv rau cov phiaj xwm topographic. Tom qab ntawd koj yeej yuav tsum tau siv lub caliper. Txhawm rau ua qhov no, ob qhov kawg ntawm lub cuab yeej yuav tsum muab tso rau ntawm qhov sib faib ntawm cov kab tawm thiab txav mus raws li txoj kev npaj.

B) hla.

Nomogram (ib daim duab ntawm kev ua haujlwm ntawm ntau qhov sib txawv, uas tso cai rau koj los tshawb nrhiav kev vam meej yam tsis muaj kev suav, tsuas yog ua tsaug rau cov haujlwm geometric yooj yim), uas yog tsim los ntawm kev soj ntsuam qhov sib npaug ntawm ntukab sib npaug. Lawv hla ob sab ntawm lub ces kaum.

Yuav ua li cas, ntawm kab hauv qab ntawm hom ntsuas no, qhov ntev yog ntsuas, thaum sab xis yuav tsum nyob ntawm tag nrho kev faib ntawm OM, thiab sab laug yuav tsum dhau 0.

2. Npe.

Cov lus qhia txog lub sijhawm twg hauv qhov tseeb yog 1 cm ntawm daim phiaj lossis daim ntawv qhia. Hom nplai no yog qhia los ntawm cov lej muaj npe thiab qhov ntev ntawm ob ntu ntawm daim ntawv qhia hauv daim ntawv ntuj (piv txwv li, 1 cm - 3 km).

Daim ntawv hais lus yooj yim, vim qhov ntev ntawm kab hauv av feem ntau pom nyob rau hauv meters, thiab ntawm daim duab qhia chaw thiab cov phiaj xwm - hauv centimeters. 1 cm yog sib npaug rau 30 meters, uas txhais tau hais tias tus lej ntsuas yuav yog 1: 3000.

1 m yog sib npaug rau 100 cm, uas yog, tus naj npawb ntawm cov meter struts muaj nyob rau hauv 1 cm ntawm ib txoj kev npaj los yog daim ntawv qhia yuav yooj yim nrhiav tau yooj yim los ntawm kev faib tus denominator ntawm tus lej ntsuas los ntawm 100.

3. Tus lej.

Nplai ntawm hom no feem ntau siv. Lawv kuj raug hu ua ob-kilometer, tsib-kilometer, thiab lwm yam. Lawv tau piav raws li ib feem. Tus lej hauv nws yog ib qho, thiab tus lej yog tus lej uas qhia cov naj npawb ntawm cov duab raug txo (1:M).

Yog tias koj xav sib piv cov lej sib txawv, ces qhov tsawg tshaj plaws yuav yog tus nrog tus lej loj M. Qhov loj tshaj plaws yuav yog qhov piv nrog tus denominator tsawg tshaj plaws М.

Piv txwv li: nplai 1: 10,000 yog qhov loj dua qhov ntsuas 1: 100,000. Nplai 1: 50,000 yog me dua qhov ntsuas 1: 10,000. Muaj cov lej ntsuas hauv tebchaws Russia: los ntawm 1: 10,000 txog 1: 10.000, Qhov ntsuas tib yam tuaj yeem sau rau hauv ib qho ntawm txoj kev saum toj no, lub ntsiab lus yog thaum twgtus no yuav nyob li qub. Siv qhov piv, koj tuaj yeem ntsuas lub sijhawm nruab nrab ntawm txhua yam khoom (volcanoes, chaw nyob, pas dej, dej ntws, thiab lwm yam). Koj tsuas yog yuav tsum coj tus pas ntsuas thiab ntsuas qhov deb. Qhov tshwm sim tus naj npawb ntawm centimeters yuav tsum muab sib npaug los ntawm tus lej ntawm feem.

Cov nplais twg yog qhov ntau tshaj?

Thiab tam sim no nws tsim nyog xav txog cov nplais feem ntau siv hauv Russia.

1. 1:5000. Nyob rau hauv ib tug inscription nyob rau hauv ib txoj kev npaj los yog daim ntawv qhia nrog topographic cim 5000, tag nrho cov zauv yog qhia nyob rau hauv cm. Qhov no inscription txhais tau hais tias 1 cm ntawm daim ntawv qhia muaj 5000 cm nyob rau hauv av. Txhawm rau kom yooj yim, nws tsim nyog hloov cov centimeters mus rau meters. Nws hloov tawm tias 1 cm yog sib npaug li 50 meters (los yog 5 km).
2. 1:500. Cov paib saum toj kawg nkaus nrog qhov ntsuas ntawm 1: 500 tau kos tshwj xeeb rau Moscow thiab nws thaj chaw hav zoov. Kev siv qhov ntsuas no yuav tsum tau ua vim qhov ntom ntawm cov tsev nyob hauv nroog thiab cov khoom siv hauv av loj.
3. 1:2000.
4. 1:1500. Feem ntau siv scale. Yooj yim sau thiab nyeem.

Thiab tam sim no feem ntau cov xwm txheej saum toj kawg nkaus (1,500, thiab lwm yam) yuav tsum raug sau tseg.

Geodetic cov ntsiab lus:

• cov ntsiab lus ntawm cov phiaj xwm phiaj xwm sib txuas ntawm lub sijhawm ntev thiab ncua sij hawm kho hauv av, nrog rau hauv cov phab ntsa thiab ntawm cov ces kaum ntawm cov tuam tsev peev;
• demarcation marks thiab ncej rau fastening qhov project layout;
• qhov chaw ntawm lub geodetic network ntawm lub xeev (pounds, vaj tse, ntuj mounds, remnant pob zeb);
• astronomical thiab landmark ntsiab lus;
• qhov chaw thauj tog rau nkojkev tsim kho nets;
• qib qhab nia: qhov tseem ceeb thiab cov qauv hauv av, pob zeb thiab phab ntsa.

2. Cov tsev thiab lawv qhov chaw, cov qauv:

• hluav taws-tiv thaiv thaj chaw thiab tsis yog chaw nyob ua los ntawm cib, pob zeb thiab cinder thaiv;
• tsis yog hluav taws-resistant vaj tse thiab tsis nyob hauv tsev (ntoo thiab adobe);
• tsev nyob thiab tsis yog tsev nyob ntawm cov tsev sib xyaw nrog cov hluav taws kub tiv thaiv hauv pem teb ua los ntawm cov ntoo nrog nyias cib cladding;
• hauv kev tsim kho thiab rhuav tshem;
• tsev teev ntuj.

3. Agricultural, industrial thiab municipal industries:

• nrog thiab tsis kav;
• qhov ncauj ntawm qhov nquag thiab tsis ua haujlwm adits, pob tw, qhov;
• pob zeb thiab pob zeb;
• txhim kho thiab tsis muaj qhov chaw ntxiv, raug rau cov paib pom zoo ntawm cov phiaj xwm saum toj kawg nkaus 1 500 nplai;
• qhov dej, qhov dej, qhov hluav taws xob, cov chaw nres tsheb roj thiab lub tank;
• thev naus laus zis, offshore thiab thauj khoom khib nyiab;
• cranes, yees, tsom teeb thiab transformers.

4. Railways thiab cov chaw nyob ze:

• monorail, hluav taws xob, nqaim gauge railways;
• tram kab hauv kev tsim kho thiab ua haujlwm;
• nkag mus rau qhov chaw thiab qhov av;
• decals thiab turntables;
• station lem;
• hla, thaiv, rooj vag thiab viaducts;
• cargo platforms thiab loading bays;
• semaphores thiab teeb pom kev;
• ceeb toom discs, kos npe thiab daim thaiv;
• motorways thiab carriagewaystxoj kev;
• pob thiab taug kev taug kev, nyuj hla.

Lwm nplais

Hauv kev coj ua tseem ceeb ntawm kev tswj hwm thaj av, daim duab qhia chaw thiab cov phiaj xwm feem ntau yog tsim los ntawm qhov ntsuas ntawm 1: 10,000 txog 1: 50,000. Cov paib pom zoo ntawm cov phiaj xwm saum toj kawg nkaus ntawm cov nplais feem ntau yog tib yam hauv daim duab, tab sis txawv. tsuas yog hauv lawv qhov loj me xwb.

Kev tseeb

Nov yog lub npe ntawm ib ntu ntawm kab rov tav.

Qhov kev txwv qhov tshwm sim uas koj tuaj yeem ntsuas thiab tsim cov ntu tsuas yog txwv rau daim duab ntawm 0.01 cm. Tus naj npawb ntawm cov meter struts sib raug rau nws ntawm qhov ntsuas ntawm ib txoj kev npaj lossis daim ntawv qhia qhia txog qhov kawg graphical raug ntawm ib qho tshwj xeeb. piv. Qhov tseeb no qhia qhov ntev ntawm txoj kab kab rov tav ntawm qhov av (hauv meters). Yog li, txhawm rau txiav txim siab qhov tseeb no, koj yuav tsum faib tus lej ntawm tus lej los ntawm 10,000.

Piv txwv: 1:25,000 nplai yog 2.5 m; 1:100,000 sib npaug 10 m.

mapping

Siv los qhia qee qhov chaw nyob ntawm daim ntawv qhia. Muaj ntau ntau yam kev xaiv:

1. Txoj kev ntawm thaj chaw ("chaw", "chaw"). Cov cheeb tsam uas muaj xwm txheej ntuj los yog kev sib raug zoo (fauna thiab nroj tsuag).
2. Cov cim ntawm kev txav mus los. Daim ntawv qhia no yog siv los qhia txog kev txav ntawm lub hiav txwv, cua, tsheb khiav.
3. Zoo tom qab. Txiav txim siab qhov kev sib cais ntawm cov phiaj xwm raws li qee cov qauv: kev lag luam,nom tswv los yog ntuj. Piav cov yam ntxwv zoo ntawm qhov tshwm sim tsis tu ncua ntawm lub ntiaj teb saum npoo av (av) lossis cov khoom uas muaj qhov chaw tawg loj heev (cov pej xeem).
4. Quantitative background.

Qhia cov parcel subdivisions los ntawm qee qhov ntau.

Equal Spacing Txoj Cai

Pab kom txiav txim siab tus nqi nruab nrab ntawm qhov tshwm sim. Muaj ntau txoj hauv kev kom tau txais lub sijhawm koj xav tau.

1. Cartogram. Yuav kom tau txais lub caij nyoog, koj yuav tsum tau faib qhov sib txawv ntawm qhov loj tshaj plaws thiab qhov tsawg tshaj plaws los ntawm 5. Piv txwv li: 100 - 25 \u003d 75. Qhov tshwm sim tus lej 75 yuav tsum muab faib los ntawm 5, nws hloov tawm 15. Yog li ntawd, qhov tshwm sim ntawm lub sijhawm. yuav txawv ntawm 25 mus rau 100 txhua 15 units: 25 - 40 thiab lwm yam.
2. Daim duab qhia chaw. Txoj kev no yog siv nyob rau hauv rooj plaub uas yuav tsum tau qhia tag nrho qhov loj ntawm qhov tshwm sim hauv ib cheeb tsam (tus naj npawb ntawm cov tub ntxhais kawm, dej tshiab, thiab lwm yam).
3. Scheme. Txoj kev no yog ib qho yooj yim saib ntawm daim ntawv qhia, uas tsis muaj degree network.

Topographic maps

Nov yog ib daim duab uas tau tsim nyob rau hauv ib daim ntawv txo, coj mus rau hauv tus account qee yam kev cai lej. Nws tuaj yeem ua rau ntawm lub dav hlau ntawm tag nrho lub ntiaj teb lossis ib tus neeg cov khoom raws li qhov nkhaus ntawm lub ntiaj teb.

Raws li cov meridians, daim ntawv qhia topographic nrog cov cim rau cov phiaj xwm topographic 1 500 yog taw qhia kom sab qaum teb ib txwm nyob saum. Qhov no ua rau nws yooj yim heev rau kev taug kev hauv av thaum sivcompass lossis lwm yam khoom siv.

Txhua daim duab qhia chaw muaj ntau yam ntxwv. Cov tseem ceeb yog scale thiab ntaub ntawv. Feem ntau, txoj cai tau pom tias qhov loj dua, cov ntaub ntawv ntau dua.

Informativeness - qhov ntau thiab zoo ntawm cov ntaub ntawv uas daim ntawv qhia muaj.

Qhov zoo ntawm daim npav qhia los ntawm:

• up to date (ntau dua-to-hnub daim ntawv qhia, qhov ntau yog nws cov ntaub ntawv);
• raug ntawm kab, scaffolding contours, thiab lwm yam.

Cov ntaub ntawv tseem ceeb heev. Cov ntaub ntawv ntxaws ntxiv ua rau nws yooj yim dua rau kev ua haujlwm nrog daim ntawv qhia (piv txwv li, muaj qhov dej, laj kab, thiab lwm yam).

Kev qhia ntawm daim duab qhia chaw saum toj kawg nkaus yog muab los ntawm cov paib paib.

Los ntawm qhov ntsuas, daim duab qhia tau muab faib ua:

1. Loj loj (piv 1: 100,000 thiab loj dua).
2. Mid-scale (ntawm 1:200,000 txog 1:1,000,000).
3. Small scale (ratio tsawg dua 1:1,000,000).

Thaum tsim ib daim duab qhia chaw saum toj kawg nkaus nrog cov paib, nws yog qhov zoo dua los tsim ntxiv:

• daim phiaj kab sib chaws (meridians thiab parallels);
• kilometer daim phiaj (kab uas sib npaug mus rau nruab nrab meridian thiab kab zauv).

Dhau li ntawd, koj yuav tsum nco ntsoov tias qhov ntsuas ntawm daim ntawv qhia ntawm txhua tus taw tes yuav muaj nws tus kheej tus nqi. Nws yuav nyob ntawm qhov longitude thiab latitude ntawm ib qho point.

Plan

Nov yog qhov projection, txo cov duab ntawm ib yam dab tsi ntawm lub dav hlau kab rov tav.

Muaj cov phiaj xwm:

1. Topographic. Nov yog daim duab ntawm thaj chaw, uas tsuas yog qhia qhov xwm txheej.
2. Contour (qhov xwm txheej). Ntawm cov phiaj xwm saum toj no nrog cov paib qhia, ntxiv rau qhov xwm txheej, qhov kev pab cuam kuj tau piav qhia. Tsis zoo li daim duab qhia chaw, qhov ntsuas ntawm ib txoj kev npaj yog tib yam ntawm tag nrho nws cov ntsiab lus.

Errors

Qhov tsis zoo cuam tshuam nrog ntsuas qhov deb ntawm daim duab qhia chaw tuaj yeem cuam tshuam nrog:

• Nrog kev ntsuas tsis raug.
• Nrog qhov yuam kev uas tau ua thaum sau daim ntawv qhia nws tus kheej.
• Nrog qhov nqaij tawv, khoov, tawg thiab lwm yam tsis xws luag ntawm daim phiaj xwm lossis daim ntawv qhia.

Kev hloov kho

Txawm tias tag nrho cov xwm txheej saum toj no tau ua tiav, muaj kev pheej hmoo loj uas qhov ntsuas yuav tsis raug. Qhov no tuaj yeem tshwm sim rau ntau qhov laj thawj:

1. Tig. Tsis tas li ntawd, thaum txiav txim siab qhov kev ncua deb ntawm txhua yam khoom, nws yog ib qho tsim nyog yuav tsum coj mus rau hauv tus account qhov kev nqes hav, vim daim ntawv qhia tsuas yog ib qho kev kwv yees ntawm thaj chaw tiag tiag ntawm lub dav hlau. Yog li ntawd, nws tsis coj mus rau hauv tus account cov nqes hav thiab yuav ua rau qhov tsis raug. Tsiv ntawm txoj kab nqes hav, tus neeg kuj tseem npog qhov deb nce thiab nqis. Ntawd yog, qhov kev ncua deb ntawm lub dav hlau ib txwm yuav ntau dua qhov sib txawv uas tau ntsuas hauv daim ntawv qhia. Piv txwv li, yog tias thaj av tilted ntawm 42 degrees, qhov kev kho yuav yog 1.35. Qhov no txhais tau hais tias qhov kev ncua deb ntawm daim ntawv qhia lossis txoj kev npaj yuav tsum muab sib npaug ntawm 1.35.
2. Txoj kev ncaj. Ntawm daim duab qhia chaw me me nrog cov paib qhia, nrog rau cov duab ntawm thaj chaw roob, feem ntau tsis muajmuaj peev xwm kos duab hauv kev nthuav dav txhua qhov khoov ntawm txoj kev. Yog li ntawd, lawv feem ntau yog straightened, vim hais tias yav tas los xam nyob rau hauv daim ntawv qhia yuav tsawg dua qhov tseeb, mus txog qhov sib txawv ntawm 1.3 npaug.