thawj yam khoom uas tib neeg tau kawm siv rau lawv cov kev xav tau yog pob zeb. Txawm li cas los xij, tom qab ntawd, thaum ib tug neeg paub txog cov khoom ntawm cov hlau, lub pob zeb tau txav mus deb. Nws yog cov tshuaj no thiab lawv cov alloys uas tau dhau los ua cov khoom tseem ceeb tshaj plaws thiab cov khoom tseem ceeb hauv cov neeg txhais tes. Cov khoom siv hauv tsev, cov cuab yeej ntawm kev ua haujlwm tau ua los ntawm lawv, thaj chaw tau tsim. Yog li ntawd, nyob rau hauv tsab xov xwm no peb yuav txiav txim siab seb cov hlau yog dab tsi, cov yam ntxwv dav dav, cov khoom thiab kev siv cov uas muaj feem xyuam rau niaj hnub no. Tom qab tag nrho, tam sim ntawd tom qab lub Hnub Nyoog Pob Zeb, tag nrho galaxy ntawm cov hlau ua raws li: tooj liab, tooj liab thiab hlau.
Metals: general yam ntxwv
Dab tsi koom ua ke tag nrho cov neeg sawv cev ntawm cov khoom yooj yim no? Ntawm chav kawm, qhov no yog cov qauv ntawm lawv cov siv lead ua lattice, hom tshuaj bonds thiab cov yam ntxwv ntawm cov qauv hluav taws xob ntawm lub atom. Tom qab tag nrho, yog li cov yam ntxwv ntawm lub cev uas qhia txog kev siv cov ntaub ntawv no los ntawm tib neeg.
Ua ntej tshaj plaws, xav txog cov hlau ua cov tshuaj lom neeg ntawm lub sijhawm. Nyob rau hauv nws, lawv nyob heev ywj siab, nyob 95 hlwb tawm ntawm 115 paub txog hnub no. Muaj ob peb yam ntxwv ntawm lawv qhov chaw nyob rau hauv lub general.system:
- Lawv tsim cov pawg tseem ceeb ntawm pawg I thiab II, nrog rau III, pib nrog txhuas.
- Tag nrho cov pab pawg thib ob muaj cov hlau nkaus xwb.
- Lawv nyob hauv qab kab kab kab raws cai los ntawm boron mus rau astatine.
Raws li cov ntaub ntawv no, nws yooj yim pom tias cov hlau tsis yog hlau tau sau nyob rau sab xis sab xis ntawm lub kaw lus, thiab qhov seem ntawm qhov chaw yog cov khoom peb xav tau.
Txhua tus ntawm lawv muaj ntau yam ntawm cov qauv hluav taws xob ntawm lub atom:
- Loj atomic radius, vim qhov kev sib raug zoo ntawm cov hluav taws xob sab nraud thiab cov nucleus tsis muaj zog, yog li cov hlau yooj yim muab nws tawm, ua raws li cov neeg ua haujlwm txo qis.
- Ib tug me me ntawm cov hluav taws xob hauv txheej txheej zog.
- Nyob rau hauv pab pawg los ntawm sab saum toj mus rau hauv qab, cov khoom hlau ntawm cov ntsiab lus tau txhim kho, thiab nyob rau lub sijhawm ntawm sab laug mus rau sab xis, ntawm qhov tsis sib xws, lawv tsis muaj zog. Yog li, qhov muaj zog tshaj plaws uas tsis yog hlau yog fluorine, thiab qhov tsis muaj zog tshaj plaws yog francium.
Cov yam ntxwv dav dav ntawm cov hlau thiab cov hlau tsis muaj hlau tso cai rau peb txheeb xyuas cov qauv hauv lawv cov qauv. Yog li, siv lead ua lattice ntawm yav dhau los yog xim hlau, tshwj xeeb. Nws cov nodes muaj ob peb hom hais ib zaug:
- ions;
- atoms;
- electrons.
Ib huab huab sib sau sab hauv, hu ua electron gas, uas piav qhia tag nrho cov khoom ntawm lub cev ntawm cov khoom no. Hom tshuaj tiv thaiv hauv cov hlau ntawm tib lub npe nrog lawv.
Lub cev muaj zog
Muaj ntau qhov ntsuas uas sib sau ua ke tag nrho cov hlau. Cov yam ntxwv ntawm lawv lub cevCov khoom zoo li no.
- Hlau ci. Txhua tus neeg sawv cev ntawm pab pawg ntawm cov tshuaj no muaj nws. Nyob rau tib lub sij hawm, feem ntau ntawm nws qhia txog lub teeb ntawm ib lub wavelength, yog li ntawd nws emits ib tug mos dawb-nyiaj xim. Tab sis qee qhov (kub, tooj liab, ntau alloys) muaj xim daj.
- Malleability thiab plasticity. Qhov parameter no kuj muaj nyob hauv cov hlau. Cov yam ntxwv dav dav ntawm lub hauv paus no, txawm li cas los xij, tsis yog tag nrho, txij li ntawm cov neeg sawv cev muaj cov muag muag heev, malleable thiab ductile, thiab muaj cov khoom tawg yooj yim uas yog machined. Qhov zoo tshaj plaws malleable thiab ductile yog kub, nyiaj, tooj liab, txhuas thiab lwm yam. Tsawg malleable - tin, lead, manganese thiab lwm yam.
- Hluav taws xob thiab thermal conductivity. Nws muaj los ntawm txhua tus neeg sawv cev yam tsis muaj kev zam. Cov hlau yog cov conductors ntawm thawj hom.
- High melting thiab boiling point. Rau lub hauv paus no, lawv muab faib ua refractory (kub siab tshaj 1500 degrees), fusible - hauv qab daim duab teev.
- Lub teeb thiab hnyav hlau nyob ntawm lawv qhov ceev. Nws yog qhov me me, qhov me me ntawm qhov hnyav atomic ntawm lub caij. Lub teeb tshaj plaws yog lithium, thiab qhov hnyav tshaj plaws yog osmium.
- Hardness. Cov ntaub ntawv tuav rau qhov ntsuas no yog chromium, thiab qhov softest yog cesium, nws melts ntawm tes.
Cov tsis muaj npe - qhov no yog cov yam ntxwv ntawm cov hlau, uas yog, txhua yam uas sib sau ua ke rau hauv ib tsev neeg loj. Txawm li cas los xij, nws yuav tsum nkag siab tias muaj kev zam rau txhua txoj cai. Ntxiv mus, muaj ntau ntau yam ntawm hom no. Yog li ntawd, hauv tsev neeg nws tus kheej,muaj kev faib ua ntau pawg, uas peb yuav xav txog hauv qab no thiab peb yuav qhia txog cov yam ntxwv ntawm tus yam ntxwv.
tshuaj muaj zog
Los ntawm qhov pom ntawm kev tshawb fawb ntawm chemistry, tag nrho cov hlau yog txo cov neeg ua haujlwm. Thiab, muaj zog heev. Qhov tsawg dua electrons nyob rau sab nrauv thiab qhov loj ntawm lub atomic radius, cov hlau muaj zog dua raws li qhov ntsuas qhov ntsuas.
Vim li no, cov hlau tuaj yeem ua rau:
- non-metals;
- dej;
- acids;
- nrog alkalis (amphoteric hlau);
- oxides;
- ntsev ntawm cov hlau tsis muaj zog.
Nov yog ib qho kev qhia dav dav ntawm cov khoom siv tshuaj. Tom qab tag nrho, rau txhua pawg ntawm cov ntsiab lus lawv yog tus kheej nkaus xwb.
Alkaline ntiaj teb hlau
Cov yam ntxwv dav dav ntawm alkaline ntiaj teb hlau yog raws li hauv qab no:
- Muaj ob lub electrons nyob rau sab nraud.
- Lawv tsim pab pawg thib ob ntawm pawg tseem ceeb ntawm lub sijhawm, tshwj tsis yog beryllium.
- Raws li ib txwm muaj, cov khoom no tsis tuaj yeem txiav nrog rab riam.
- Cov xim ntawm cov hlau yooj yim yog nyiaj-grey, npog nrog oxide zaj duab xis hauv huab cua.
- Lawv cov tshuaj lom neeg muaj siab, nws nce los ntawm magnesium mus rau radium.
- Dav dav hauv qhov xwm txheej, tshwj xeeb yog calcium. Hauv ib daim ntawv yooj yim, lawv tsis pom vim muaj kev ua haujlwm siab, tab sis lawv tsim ntau yam sib txawv uas tseem ceeb rau tib neeg.
- Kev lom neeg tseem ceeb. Calcium thiab magnesium yog cov kab mob tseem ceeb ntawm tib neeg lub cev thiabtsiaj txhu. Magnesium kuj yog ib feem ntawm cov nroj tsuag chlorophyll.
Yog li, alkaline ntiaj teb hlau yog cov ntsiab lus ntawm s-tsev neeg, nthuav tawm cov tshuaj lom neeg muaj zog thiab muaj zog txo cov neeg ua haujlwm thiab cov neeg koom nrog tseem ceeb hauv cov txheej txheem lom neeg hauv lub cev.
Alkali hlau
Tus yam ntxwv dav dav ntawm alkali hlau pib nrog lawv lub npe. Lawv tau txais nws rau lub peev xwm yaj hauv dej, tsim alkalis - caustic hydroxides. Cov tshuaj tiv thaiv nrog dej yog nruj heev, qee zaum ua rau muaj hluav taws. Cov tshuaj no tsis pom nyob rau hauv daim ntawv dawb nyob rau hauv cov xwm, vim lawv cov tshuaj lom neeg kev ua si yog siab dhau lawm. Lawv cuam tshuam nrog huab cua, dej vapor, tsis yog hlau, acids, oxides thiab ntsev, tsuas yog txhua yam.
Qhov no yog vim lawv cov qauv hluav taws xob. Nyob rau theem sab nrauv, tsuas muaj ib qho hluav taws xob, uas lawv yooj yim muab tam sim ntawd. Cov no yog cov muaj zog txo cov neeg ua haujlwm, uas yog vim li cas nws siv sijhawm ntev heev kom tau txais lawv hauv lawv daim ntawv dawb huv. Qhov no yog thawj zaug ua los ntawm Humphrey Davy twb nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua 18th los ntawm electrolysis ntawm sodium hydroxide. Tam sim no txhua tus neeg sawv cev ntawm pab pawg no tau mined siv txoj kev no.
Cov yam ntxwv dav dav ntawm cov hlau alkali nyob rau hauv qhov tseeb tias lawv tsim thawj pab pawg ntawm pawg tseem ceeb ntawm lub caij nyoog. Tag nrho cov no yog cov ntsiab lus tseem ceeb uas tsim muaj ntau yam khoom muaj txiaj ntsig zoo siv los ntawm tib neeg.
yam ntxwv ntawm cov hlau ntawm d- thiab f-tsev neeg
pawg no suav nrog tag nrho covuas nws oxidation yuav txawv. Qhov no txhais tau hais tias, nyob ntawm cov xwm txheej, cov hlau tuaj yeem ua ob qho tib si oxidizing tus neeg saib xyuas thiab txo tus neeg sawv cev. Cov ntsiab lus zoo li no muaj peev xwm nkag mus rau hauv cov tshuaj tiv thaiv. Ntawm lawv, muaj ntau yam tshuaj amphoteric.
Lub npe nrov rau tag nrho cov atoms no yog cov kev hloov pauv. Lawv tau txais nws rau qhov tseeb tias, ntawm lawv cov khoom, lawv yeej sawv, zoo li nws yog, nyob rau hauv nruab nrab, nruab nrab ntawm cov hlau ib txwm ntawm s-tsev neeg thiab non-metals ntawm p-tsev neeg.
Tus yam ntxwv dav dav ntawm cov hlau hloov pauv txhais tau hais tias lawv cov khoom zoo sib xws. Lawv yog cov hauv qab no:
- coob tus electrons nyob rau sab nrauv;
- loj atomic radius;
- ntau lub xeev oxidation (ntawm +3 txog +7);
- valence electrons nyob rau ntawm d- lossis f-sublevel;
- daim ntawv 4-6 lub sijhawm loj ntawm qhov system.
Raws li cov khoom yooj yim, cov hlau ntawm pawg no muaj zog heev, ductile thiab malleable, yog li lawv yog qhov tseem ceeb ntawm kev lag luam.
Sib pab pawg ntawm ntu ntu
Cov yam ntxwv dav dav ntawm cov hlau ntawm cov pab pawg thib ob yog sib xws nrog cov kev hloov pauv hloov pauv. Thiab qhov no tsis yog xav tsis thoob, vim hais tias, qhov tseeb, nws yog tib yam nkaus. Nws tsuas yog hais tias sab subgroups ntawm lub kaw lus raug tsim los ntawm cov neeg sawv cev ntawm d- thiab f-tsev neeg, uas yog, kev hloov hlau. Yog li ntawd, peb tuaj yeem hais tias cov ntsiab lus no yog cov lus sib piv.
Qhov nquag thiab tseem ceeb ntawm lawv yog thawj kab ntawm 10 tus neeg sawv cev los ntawm scandium mus rau zinc. Tag nrho cov ntawm lawv yog qhov tseem ceeb ntawm kev lag luam thiab feem ntausiv los ntawm txiv neej, tshwj xeeb tshaj yog rau smelting.
Alloys
Tus yam ntxwv dav dav ntawm cov hlau thiab cov hlau ua rau peb nkag siab qhov twg thiab qhov twg nws tuaj yeem siv cov tshuaj no. Cov tebchaw zoo li no tau dhau los ua qhov kev hloov pauv zoo nyob rau xyoo kaum xyoo dhau los, vim tias muaj ntau thiab ntau ntxiv cov additives tshiab tau raug tshawb pom thiab ua ke los txhim kho lawv qhov zoo.
Cov khoom nto moo tshaj plaws niaj hnub no yog:
- brass;
- duralumin;
- cam khwb cia hlau;
- steel;
- bronze;
- yuav yeej;
- nichrome thiab lwm yam.
Yuav ua li cas yog lub alloy? Qhov no yog kev sib xyaw ntawm cov hlau uas tau los ntawm smelting lub tom kawg hauv cov khoom siv hluav taws xob tshwj xeeb. Qhov no yog ua kom tau ib yam khoom uas zoo tshaj hauv cov khoom rau cov ntshiab tshuaj uas tsim nws.
Sib piv cov khoom ntawm cov hlau thiab tsis yog hlau
Yog tias peb tham txog cov khoom siv dav dav, ces cov yam ntxwv ntawm cov hlau thiab cov hlau tsis yog hlau yuav txawv ntawm ib qho tseem ceeb heev: rau qhov kawg, cov yam ntxwv zoo sib xws tsis tuaj yeem paub qhov txawv, vim lawv txawv ntawm lawv lub cev thiab tshuaj lom neeg.
Yog li ntawd, nws tsis tuaj yeem tsim cov yam ntxwv zoo li no rau cov hlau tsis muaj hlau. Nws tsuas yog ua tau cais cov neeg sawv cev ntawm txhua pab pawg thiab piav qhia lawv cov khoom.
