Cov lus uas twb muaj lawm los yog ib txwm muaj lawm yuav tsum tau muab cais tawm, ib qho yog faib cov lus rau hauv cov khoom siv hluavtaws thiab tshuaj xyuas. Txawm hais tias qhov muaj nyob ntawm ob hom no feem ntau lees paub, cov txheej txheem uas yog lub hauv paus rau qhov kev faib tawm no tseem nyob hauv kev sib tham. Qhov no yog vim qhov tseeb tias kev txheeb xyuas lossis kev sib xyaw ntawm cov lus tuaj yeem txiav tawm ntawm ob qho tib si morphological thiab syntactic xav.
Morphology
Cov kab lus no yog kawm txog cov qauv ntawm cov lus. Muaj ob lub tswv yim tseem ceeb rau lawv tsim: kev siv ntau yam morphemes (prefixes, affixes thiab inflections) los yog cov lus pab. Qhov sib piv ntawm tus naj npawb ntawm morphemes thiab tus naj npawb ntawm cov lus muaj txiaj ntsig hauv ib ntu uas tau xaiv los ntawm cov ntawv nyeem qhia qhov ntsuas ntawm cov lus sib txuas. Tus kws paub lus Askiv Asmeskas Joseph Greenberg suav qhov piv txwv no. Rau Nyab Lajnws yog 1.06 (uas yog, tsuas yog 106 morphemes tau pom nyob rau hauv ib ntu ntawm cov ntawv 100 lo lus ntev), thiab rau lus Askiv nws yog 1.68. Hauv Lavxias, qhov ntsuas ntawm syntheticity ntawm 2.33 txog 2.45.
Grinberg txoj kev tsim kom muaj qhov sib txawv ntawm cov lus analytic thiab synthetic yog hu ua quantitative. Nws xav tias txhua yam lus uas muaj cov khoom siv hluavtaws los ntawm 2 txog 3 tuaj yeem muab faib ua hluavtaws. Cov lus uas qhov Performance index tsawg yog analytic.
Syntax
Qhov tsis muaj qhov ntsuas morphological ntawm daim ntawv lo lus yuav tsum muaj cov lus nruj dua, uas tso cai rau koj los tsim kev sib raug zoo grammatical ntawm lexemes. Twb tau los ntawm lub npe nws tus kheej, nws muaj peev xwm txiav txim siab seb hom lus twg yog hu ua hom lus ntawm kev tshuaj ntsuam xyuas: txhawm rau kom nkag siab txog dab tsi cuam tshuam, koj yuav tsum ua qee yam kev tshuaj xyuas ntawm nqe lus, txhawm rau txiav txim siab dab tsi yog hais txog dab tsi.. Ntxiv nrog rau cov lus nruj, nws yuav tsum tau them sai sai rau intonation. Yog hais tias, piv txwv li, nyob rau hauv lus Askiv interrogative kab lus yog qhia siv cov lus muaj nuj nqi, ces nyob rau hauv Lavxias teb sab muaj peev xwm tsim qhov sib txawv tsuas yog nrog kev pab los ntawm intonation (piv txwv li, "Niam los" thiab "Niam los?").
qauv sau ntawv
Syntactic thiab morphological hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm singling tawm analytical thiab synthetic lus tsis tuaj yeem txiav txim siab cais. Nws yog ib qho tsim nyog yuav tsum coj mus rau hauv tus account cov qauv grammatical ntawm cov lus tag nrho, txij li tus ciam teb ntawm ob hom kev hloov ntaub ntawv feem ntau zoo li tsis ruaj khov. Yog nyob rau hauvHais txog lus Askiv, peb tuaj yeem ntseeg tau hais tias qhov no yog hom lus ntawm kev tshuaj ntsuam xyuas (qhov xaus - (e) s, - (e) d, -ing - uas yog, tej zaum, txhua yam uas tau nco txog tam sim ntawm lus Askiv morphemes), Tom qab ntawd nrog Lavxias teb sab qhov teeb meem yog qhov nyuaj dua: peb pom ob qho tib si kev siv ntawm inflections (piv txwv li, cov lus xaus) thiab cov lus qhia ua haujlwm (hauv kev tsim ntawm yav tom ntej tense ntawm imperfective verbs). Ib qho xwm txheej zoo sib xws yog pom nyob rau hauv lwm yam lus hluavtaws. Zoo li morphology, syntax tsuas yog ib qho ntawm ntau yam ntawm cov qauv sau ntawv. Thiab ob ntu ntawm kev hais lus no muaj kev sib raug zoo. Yog li ntawd, qhov sib txawv ntawm cov lus ntawm kev txheeb xyuas thiab cov khoom siv hluav taws xob tsuas yog tsim los ntawm qhov pom ntawm kev kawm dav dav ntawm cov qauv sau ntawv.
Article
Ib qho piv txwv yog kev txhim kho cov ntawv. Hauv feem ntau ntawm cov lus, tsab xov xwm tsis tas yuav tsim los ntawm cov lej "ib", thiab cov kab lus tseeb tsim los ntawm cov lus qhia. Thaum pib, nws plays lub luag hauj lwm syntactic: nws qhia tau hais tias cov ntsiab lus yog paub los yog tsis paub rau tus mloog. Tab sis maj mam tsab xov xwm kuj tau txais lub luag haujlwm morphological, qhia txog poj niam txiv neej, tus lej, thiab qee zaum txawm tias qhov xwm txheej ntawm lub npe. Qhov no yog qhov tseeb tshwj xeeb tshaj yog nyob rau hauv German lus, qhov twg tsab xov xwm, raws li ib tug functional lo lus, qhia lub morphological yam ntxwv ntawm lub npe, tab sis nyob rau tib lub sij hawm nws hloov, ntxiv ntau yam inflections. Muab qhov tshwj xeeb no, puas yog German lus hluavtaws lossis lus tshuaj ntsuam? Cov lus teb yuav tsum tau kawm cov qauv sau ntawv tag nrho. Greenberg Index rau GermanQhia nws txoj haujlwm ciam teb: 1, 97.
Language in development
Txoj kev loj hlob ntawm kev sib piv lus tau tso cai rau cov kws qhia lus los tsim cov hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm kev tsim kho lus, ua tsaug uas ib tus tuaj yeem paub txog cov qauv grammatical ntawm cov lus sau ua ntej. Ua tsaug rau qhov no, nws paub tias kev sib txuas ntawm cov lus ntawm Proto-Indo-European lus tau hais los ntawm kev ntxiv ntau yam morphemes. Hauv cov lus sau, tib qhov xwm txheej tau pom: Latin yog hom lus zoo nkauj, tab sis lus Askiv lossis Fab Kis uas tshwm sim los ntawm nws tam sim no suav tias yog kev tshuaj xyuas.
Phonetics
Qhov kev piav qhia yooj yim tshaj plaws rau qhov no yog kev hloov pauv hauv xov tooj. Twb tau nyob rau theem ntawm Latin lig, inflections, qhia feem ntau nyob rau hauv lub suab suab, pib pronounced indistinctly, uas ua rau kev sib koom ua ke ntawm cov ntaub ntawv morphological. Yog li ntawd, yuav tsum muaj kev kos cim ntxiv ntawm kev sib txuas lus grammatical: prepositions, auxiliary verbs thiab cov qeb tsim sai heev ntawm tsab xov xwm tau dhau los ua qhov tseem ceeb. Ib qho tuaj yeem tuaj yeem hla qhov kev lees paub yuam kev uas cov lus Askiv tau tsuas yog poob txhua qhov xwm txheej, tshwj tsis yog rau cov npe (Subjective Case) thiab cov khoom muaj (Possessive Case), uas tau tshwm sim los ntawm lub hauv paus ntawm genitive. Qee lub sij hawm cov ntaub ntawv accusative (Objective Case) kuj txawv. Tab sis qhov tshwm sim tiag tiag tsis yog kev tuag ntawm cov xwm txheej ntawm Cov Lus Askiv qub, tab sis lawv txoj kev sib koom ua ke. Cov xwm txheej tam sim no hauv lus Askiv tau khaws cov ntaub ntawv ntawm ob qho tib si thaum ub nominative thiab dative rooj plaub.
Los ntawm kev tshuaj xyuas mus rau kev sib txuas
Tseem muaj txheej txheem rov qab. Lub sijhawm yav tom ntej ntawm cov lus Latin tau tsim los ua ke, tab sis nrog kev hloov pauv hauv kev hais lus ntawm tag nrho nws cov ntaub ntawv, lawv pib suab tib yam. Raws li twb tau hais lawm, nyob rau hauv cov ntaub ntawv no, cov qauv sau ntawv hloov mus rau cov txheej txheem no, tso cai rau siv cov ntaub ntawv ntawm cov lus qhia habere ua auxiliary. Cov yam ntxwv no tau dhau mus rau cov lus Romance uas tshwm sim, tab sis nws qhov kev hloov pauv thaum xub thawj siab zoo li tsis xav txog. Hauv lus Mev, cov ntaub ntawv ntawm cov lus qhia haber tau dhau los ua qhov kawg ntawm Futuro Yooj Yim de Indicativo tense, merging nrog lub qia ntawm infinitive. Yog li ntawd, cov ntaub ntawv ntawm lub neej yav tom ntej tense, hlub (rau lawv simplicity) los ntawm txhua tus neeg kawm lus Mev, sawv: comeré, comerás, comeremos, comereis, comerán, uas qhov xaus yog -é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án ua tim khawv tias ib zaug qhov kev ntxhov siab no tau tsim los ntawm kev pab los ntawm ib qho lus qhia. Ntawm no nws yog qhov tsim nyog kom nco qab lub ntsiab lus ntawm kev ntxhov siab thiab intonation rau qhov txawv ntawm cov ntawv: Futuro Simple de Subjuntivo daim ntawv yog tsim nrog tib yam, tab sis tsuas yog tsis muaj kev ntxhov siab xaus.
Ntau yam ntawm cov lus hluavtaws
Ua ntej, peb tsuas yog tham txog cov lus hluavtaws ntawm hom no, qhov twg lub ntsiab ntawm kev shaping yog inflection. Nws yuav tsum raug sau tseg tias cov tswv yim zoo li no tsuas yog yuav tsum tau siv ntau cov lus ua haujlwm kom paub meej txog kev sib txuas lus grammatical. Piv txwv li, lo lus Lavxias teb sab "dom" muaj xoom xaus, uas yog tus yam ntxwv ntawm ob qho tib si nominative thiab accusative rooj plaub. Yog li ntawd, ua kom pom tias "tsev" tsis yog ib qho kev kawm, tab sis yog khoomkev ua, kev siv ntau yam prepositions yog yuav tsum tau.
Hauv cov lus inflectional, ib qho inflection tsis muaj lub ntsiab lus tshwj xeeb. Qhov xaus -a hauv Lavxias tuaj yeem nthuav qhia:
- nominative singular nouns ntawm 1st declension;
- genitive singular nouns ntawm 2nd declension (thiab rau animate sawv daws kuj accusative);
- nominative plural ntawm qee tus txiv neej thiab cov npe tsis zoo;
- feminine in the past tense of verbs.
Tab sis txoj hauv kev ntawm kev kos cov kab lus sib txuas hauv cov lus hluavtaws tsis txwv rau kev nkag mus. Muaj cov lus agglutinative nyob rau hauv uas lo lus cov ntaub ntawv yog tsim los ntawm sequentially ntxiv ntau yam lus thiab prefixes, uas muaj tsuas yog ib tug grammatical lub ntsiab lus. Piv txwv li, nyob rau hauv Hungarian lub ntsiab lus -nak- qhia tsuas yog lub ntsiab lus ntawm rooj plaub dative, thaum -aren- nyob rau hauv Basque qhia txog genitive case.
Piv txwv ntawm cov lus hluavtaws
Cov piv txwv zoo tshaj plaws ntawm kev qhia txog kev sib raug zoo grammatical siv inflections tuaj yeem khav ntawm Latin (tshwj xeeb yog lub sijhawm classical), Greek thiab Sanskrit thaum ub. Qee hom lus ntawm lub hauv paus no yog qhov txawv ntawm polysynthetic, qhov twg siv cov lus ua haujlwm thiab cov lus qhia ua haujlwm tsis pom zoo. Cov lus zoo li no ua rau tag nrho tsev neeg, xws li Chukchi-Kamchatka lossis Eskimo-Aleut.
Cais, nws yuav tsum hais txog cov lus Slavic. Qhov teeb meem ntawm kev faib cov lus Lavxias raws li ib hom hluavtaws lossis analytical hom tau hais los saum toj no. Nws txoj kev loj hlob yog tus cwj pwm los ntawm qhov tsis sib xws ntawm qhov tsis sib xws ntawm cov lus qhia tenses (tsuas yog tam sim no, qee cov qauv ntawm yav dhau los thiab yav tom ntej tseem tshuav los ntawm Lub Koom Txoos Qub Slavonic), thaum tuav ib txoj kab ke ntawm declension ntawm nominal feem ntawm kev hais lus. Txawm li cas los xij, nws tuaj yeem hais nrog qee qhov kev paub tseeb tias cov lus Lavxias Lavxias yog hluavtaws. Nyob rau hauv ib co dialectisms, muaj ib tug expansion ntawm analyticism, qhia nyob rau hauv lub tsim ntawm zoo meej cov ntaub ntawv ntawm verb tenses (piv txwv li, "Kuv tau milked ib tug nyuj" es tsis txhob ntawm "Kuv tau milked ib tug nyuj", qhov kev tsim kho "ntawm kuv" sib raug. to the verb of possession "kom muaj" siv rau hauv kev tsim cov ntawv zoo meej).
Qhov xwm txheej zoo ib yam yog pom ua lwm yam lus Slavic tshwj tsis yog Bulgarian. Qhov no yog tib hom lus Slavic uas lub tswv yim inflectional ntawm declension ntawm nominal qhov chaw ntawm kev hais lus ploj lawm thiab tsab xov xwm raug tsim. Txawm li cas los xij, qee qhov kev xav ntawm qhov tshwm sim ntawm tsab xov xwm tau pom nyob rau hauv Czech, qhov twg cov lus qhia kaum thiab nws cov ntaub ntawv rau lwm tus poj niam txiv neej ua ntej lub npe txhawm rau qhia nws paub txog cov neeg mloog.
