Keeb kwm ntawm phau ntawv yog qhov txaus nyiam heev. Txhua yam pib hauv Mesopotamia txog tsib txhiab xyoo dhau los. Thawj phau ntawv muaj me ntsis sib xws nrog cov qauv niaj hnub. Cov no yog cov ntsiav tshuaj av nplaum, uas cov cim ntawm Babylonian cuneiform tau siv nrog ib tug taw tes. Feem ntau, cov ntaub ntawv no yog nyob rau hauv ib qho xwm txheej, tab sis archaeologists muaj hmoo nrhiav tau piav qhia txog cov xwm txheej tseem ceeb hauv keeb kwm, dab neeg, thiab dab neeg. Peb cov pog koob yawg koob tau sau rau ntawm txhua lub ntsiav tshuaj li ob lossis peb zaug, yooj yim tshem tawm yam uas tau sau yav dhau los. Thawj phau ntawv hauv Npanpiloo muaj kaum ob, thiab qee zaum ntau pua nplooj ntawv av nplaum tshwj xeeb, muab tso rau hauv ib lub thawv ntoo, uas yog kev khi rau lub sijhawm qub.
Ntawm qhov kev txaus siab tshwj xeeb yog lub tsev qiv ntawv loj ntawm Assyrian vaj ntxwv Ashurbanipal. Nws yog qhov chaw cia rau kaum tawm txhiab phau ntawv nrog cov ntaub ntawv ntawm ntau yam kev lag luam. Hmoov tsis zoo, tsis yog txhua yam khoom ntiag tug tau muaj sia nyob rau hnub no.
Egyptian innovations
Tam sim no nws nyuaj heev rau nrhiav tus neeg uas paub tsis muaj dab tsi kiag li txog kab lis kev cai ntawm Ancient Egypt. Feem coob ntawm peb tam sim ntawd los xavpapyrus yog tus qauv ntawm daim ntawv. Nws loj hlob hauv cov neeg coob nyob ntawm ntug dej ntawm tus Nile zoo. Cov stems ntawm cov nroj tsuag tau txiav mus rau hauv ib daim hlab, qhuav thiab glued ua ke. Tom qab tag nrho cov manipulations, papyrus tau ua tib zoo ironed nrog pob zeb kom nws du.
Ib txwm, tsis muaj leej twg paub txog tus cwj mem tom qab ntawd, yog li thawj phau ntawv sau tau raug tsim siv zaub inks. Ib tug nyias reed ua ib hom cwj mem. Cov neeg Iyiv thaum ub tau txais txiaj ntsig nrog kev tsim thawj tus cwj mem sau tus kheej. Craftsmen pib pouring number case rau hauv lub hollow reed, muab ib tug tas mus li ntws ntawm tus qauv ink.
Rau qhov yooj yim ntawm kev siv phau ntawv papyrus, ib qho kawg ntawm daim kab xev tau txuas mus rau ib tus pas, thiab cov ntawv nws tus kheej raug mob nyob ib ncig ntawm nws. Cov ntaub ntoo los yog tawv ua cov ntaub qhwv.
Tsis yog Egypt ib leeg…
Ib txwm, cov phau ntawv tau tsim tsis yog nyob hauv lub tebchaws ntawm cov vaj ntxwv xwb. Piv txwv li, Hindus tau sau thawj phau ntawv los ntawm xibtes nplooj, uas yog ces sewn zoo sib xws thiab khi rau hauv ntoo. Hmoov tsis zoo, vim muaj hluav taws kub heev thiab kev puas tsuaj ntuj tsim, tsis muaj ib daim qauv ntawm lub sijhawm ntawd tau muaj sia nyob.
Europeans tau tso lawv cov ntawv sau rau ntawm parchment. Daim ntawv qauv no yog tawv tawv tshwj xeeb. Ua ntej tsim daim ntawv, Suav tau sau rau ntawm cov ntsiav tshuaj ua los ntawm xyoob stalks. Raws li ib qho kev xav (nws tsuas yog ib feem tau lees paub), cov neeg nyob hauv Celestial faj tim teb chaws tau muab los ntawm hieroglyphs siv cov pob hauv ib txoj kev tshwj xeeb. Txawm li cas los xij, qhov version no muaj ntau qhov tsis meej meej, yog li peb xav tias nws plausible.tseem tsis tau.
Cov peev txheej feem ntau hais tias tus tsim daim ntawv - Tsai Lun - nyob hauv thaj av ntawm Rising Sun ib puag ncig 105 BC. Nyob rau ob peb centuries tom ntej no, daim ntawv qhia los ntawm cov ntawv uas tau ua yog qhov nruj tshaj plaws zais cia. Rau nws qhov kev tshaj tawm tau hem txog kev rau txim txaus ntshai.
Cov Arabs kuj ua tau zoo hauv qhov teeb meem no: cov neeg sawv cev ntawm cov neeg no yog thawj tus tsim lawv tus kheej cov qauv ntawv, feem ntau nco txog cov niaj hnub version. Ntxuav wool ua cov khoom tseem ceeb. Thaum gluing ib daim ntawv, cov ntawv ntev (txog tsib caug meters) tau txais.
Tom qab tau txais kev ntseeg Vajtswv thiab tsim kev sau ntawv Slavic hauv tebchaws Russia, thawj phau ntawv sau ntawv kuj pib tshwm sim.
mus rau lub tshuab
Kev luam ntawv tau tsim ob zaug: hauv Suav teb thiab Europe hauv Hnub Nyoog Nrab Hnub nyoog. Cov neeg sau keeb kwm tseem tsis tau muaj kev pom zoo txog thaum thawj phau ntawv luam tawm pom qhov kaj ntawm hnub. Raws li qee cov lus ceeb toom, cov neeg txawj ntse Suav tsim lub tshuab hauv 581 BC. Raws li lwm qhov chaw, qhov no tshwm sim ntawm 936 thiab 993. Nyob rau tib lub sijhawm, thawj phau ntawv luam tawm, hnub tsim cov ntaub ntawv, tau luam tawm xyoo 868. Nws yog daim ntawv txiav ntoo tiag tiag ntawm Pob Zeb Diamond Sutra ntawm Buddha.
European muaj lawv tus kheej txiv ntawm kev luam ntawv. Nov yog Johannes Gutenberg. Nws yog tus tsim ntawm lub tshuab luam ntawv. Tsis tas li ntawd, Gutenberg tau tsim kev sau ntawv (ib qho xwm txheej tseem ceeb tshwm sim hauv 1440). Thawj phau ntawv luam tawmNws tseem sau tau zoo heev, nrog ntau cov engravings, nplua nuj tsim npog thiab stylized hom. Cov phau ntawv luam tawm tau kim heev thaum xub thawj, vim lawv nyuaj heev los tsim cov ntawv sau.
Ib nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua thib kaum tsib tau cim los ntawm kev nthuav dav ntawm lub tsev luam ntawv thoob plaws Tebchaws Europe. Yog li ntawd, nyob rau hauv 1465 ib tug rhiav tau tsim nyob rau hauv ltalis. Xyoo 1468 thawj lub tsev luam tawm tau qhib hauv Switzerland, thiab xyoo 1470 hauv Fab Kis. Tom qab peb xyoos - hauv tebchaws Poland, Hungary thiab Belgium, tom qab peb xyoos ntxiv - hauv tebchaws Askiv thiab Czech koom pheej. Nyob rau hauv 1482, lub rhiav luam ntawv tau qhib nyob rau hauv Denmark thiab Austria, nyob rau hauv 1483 nyob rau hauv Sweden, thiab plaub xyoos tom qab nyob rau hauv Portugal. Tau ob xyoo lawm, kev lag luam luam tawm dav tau tsim, thiab nrog nws, muaj kev sib tw los ntawm cov tshaj tawm.
Lub tsev luam ntawv nto moo tshaj plaws ntawm lub sijhawm ntawd yog Aldus Manutius, tus neeg nto moo ntawm Venice. Cov hauj lwm ntawm cov kws sau ntawv zoo xws li Aristotle, Herodotus, Plato, Plutarch, Demosthenes thiab Thucydides tau luam tawm nyob rau hauv nws hom.
Raws li cov txheej txheem luam ntawv tau txhim kho, tus nqi ntawm cov phau ntawv poob qis. Qhov no kuj tau txhawb nqa los ntawm kev faib cov ntawv loj.
thawj qhia
David the Invincible, tus kws lej ntawm lub xyoo pua 6th, thawj zaug sau ib phau ntawv uas sau cov lej lej thiab cov qauv. Tam sim no, phau ntawv tshwj xeeb yog nyob rau hauv Matenadaran (repository ntawm cov ntawv sau qub hauv Yerevan).
Zoo ntawm birch bark ntawv
Thawj phau ntawv nyob rau hauv Russia yog ib daim ntawv fastened birch bark. Nws yog nyob rau hauv no txoj kev uas nyob rau hauv lub XI-XV centuries peb cov poj koob yawm txwv pauv ntaub ntawv nyob rau hauv kev sau ntawv. Archaeologists muaj hmoo tau pom cov ntaub ntawv birch-bark thawj zaug hauv xyoo 1951 hauv Novgorod. A. V. Artsikholovsky coj qhov nto moo archaeological ntoj ke mus kawm.
Cov ntawv raug khawb ntawm cov tawv ntoo uas siv cov hlau ntse lossis pob txha (sau). Feem ntau ntawm cov ntawv pom birch bark yog cov ntawv ntiag tug. Hauv cov lus no, tib neeg kov cov teeb meem kev lag luam thiab hauv tsev, muab cov lus qhia, thiab piav qhia txog kev tsis sib haum xeeb. Ib txhia ntawm lawv muaj cov ntawv comic, tawm tsam ntawm cov neeg ua liaj ua teb tawm tsam kev ua nom ua tswv, cov npe ntawm cov dej num, xov xwm nom tswv, kev xav.
Los ntawm 1951 txog 1981, muaj txog rau pua tsab ntawv tau pom (feem ntau hauv Novgorod, ob peb daim ntawv luam hauv Vitebsk, Smolensk, Staraya Russa thiab Pskov).
Kev ua haujlwm ntawm cov tswv niaj hnub
Lub Tsev Haujlwm Novosibirsk Keeb Kwm khaws cov ntawv sau hu ua "Poetry". Nws tau muab los ntawm archaeologist Natalya Zolnikova. Lub hauv paus ntawm cov ntawv sau yog silky birch bark ntawm zoo heev tsim. Txawm li cas los xij, qhov no tsis yog cov khoom qub qub, tab sis ua haujlwm niaj hnub. Phau ntawv no tau tsim los ntawm cov neeg nyob hauv ib qho kev ntseeg qub uas nyob rau ntawm Lub Nroog Yenisei. Nws hloov tawm tias tam sim no birch bark kuj siv los ua ntawv.
Manuscript in Russia
thawj phau ntawv Lavxias uas tawm los ntawm tus cwj mem ntawm Slavs thaum ub hu ua "Kyiv Glagolitic Sheets". Nws raug liam tias tau tsim txog ib txhiab xyoo dhau los. Phau ntawv sau ntawv qub tshaj plaws hauv Lavxias pom - "Ostromir Txoj Moo Zoo" -hnub tim nruab nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua kaum ib.
Lub advent ntawm lub khw luam ntawv
Thawj phau ntawv luam tawm hauv tebchaws Russia pib tshwm sim tom qab 1522. Nws yog xyoo no uas lub tsev luam ntawv nyob hauv Vilna pib ua haujlwm. Tus thawj coj ntawm nws qhov kev tshawb pom yog Francysk Skaryna, tus kws qhia lus Belarusian. Ua ntej ntawd, nws twb muaj kev paub txog kev luam ntawv: Lub Yim Hli 6, 1517, nws tau luam tawm Ps alter. Nws tshwm sim hauv Prague, qhov chaw uas tus neeg zoo nyob rau lub sijhawm ntawd.
thawj phau ntawv sau Lavxias teb sab
Thawj tsab ntawv sau hnub tim, uas tau tso tawm hauv tebchaws Russia, hu ua "Apostle". Qhov no yog ib phau ntawv teev ntuj uas tau luam tawm nyob rau hauv lub peev nyob rau hauv 1564. Nws tus creator yog Ivan Fedorov. Tsis tas li ntawd, Peter Mstislavets tau koom nrog hauv cov txheej txheem (thaum lub sijhawm nws yog tub ntxhais kawm ntawm Fedorov). Nws yog cov neeg no uas tau nqis mus rau hauv keeb kwm mus ib txhis raws li tus tsim ntawm thawj phau ntawv sau hauv Lavxias. Ib tsab ntawv tshwj xeeb muaj 268 daim ntawv ntsuas 21x14 cm. Cov kev ncig nyob rau lub sijhawm ntawd tau zoo heev - tsawg dua ob txhiab daim ntawv luam. Tam sim no muaj 61 phau ntawv nrhiav tau.
Phau ntawv nyeem thawj zaug - zoo li cas?
Thawj phau ntawv sau Lavxias teb sab, ua tsaug uas peb cov yawg koob tau nyeem thiab sau ntawv, kuj tau luam tawm los ntawm tus tswv Ivan Fedorov. Nws tshwm sim dhau plaub puas xyoo dhau los. Nws muaj cov kev cai sau ntawv yooj yim, nrog rau cov lus qhia aphorisms, cov lus zoo thiab cov lus qhia.
zoo li tus primer
Phau ntawv los ntawm qhov kev paub tuaj yeem khaws tau yog qhov muaj kev hwm tshaj plaws hauv tebchaws Russia. Cov no, tau kawg, suav nrogprimers. Lawv tau muab tso ua ke los ntawm cov editors ntawm Moscow Printing House. Thawj phau ntawv menyuam yaus tau luam tawm xyoo 1634. Nws lub npe yog "Lub primer ntawm cov lus Slavonic, uas yog, pib ntawm kev qhia cov me nyuam, yog hais tias koj xav kawm nyeem vaj lug kub." Tus sau ntawm txoj haujlwm yog Vasily Burtsov-Protopopov.
Kev tsim thawj tus duab hauv Lavxias tau ua tiav los ntawm Karion Istomin, tus mlom, kws qhia ntawv thiab kws sau paj huam. Nws ua tau ib txoj hauj lwm zoo: txhua tsab ntawv tau nrog ib daim duab ntawm ib yam khoom pib nrog tsab ntawv ntawd. Phau ntawv tau ua kom nws kawm tau cov tsiaj ntawv Polish, Latin thiab Greek, thiab tsis muaj cov ntawv qhia txog kev ntseeg hauv nws. Dab tsi tshiab yog qhov tseeb tias phau ntawv yog npaj rau cov menyuam yaus ntawm ob leeg poj niam txiv neej ("cov hluas" thiab "cov ntxhais").
Nyob hauv phau ntawv
Thawj phau ntawv Lavxias teb sab luam tawm nrog lub cim tshwj xeeb uas qhia txog kev koom nrog qee lub tsev qiv ntawv tau luam tawm nyob rau xyoo pua kaum yim. Nyob rau hauv cov hnub ntawd, cov koom tes ntawm Peter lub Great, suav nrog J. Bruce thiab D. Golitsyn, tuaj yeem khav ntawm cov phau ntawv loj. Tag nrho cov ntawv luam ntawm lawv cov ntawv sau tau dai kom zoo nkauj nrog cov khoom me me hauv cov nyiaj muas thiab hom.
Mini xaiv
Lub npe ntawm thawj phau ntawv luam tawm ntsuas 6.5 x 7.5 centimeters yog "Kev Ua Yeeb Yam Zoo Tshaj Plaws hauv Kev Sib Tham". Ib daim ntawv luam tshwj xeeb tau luam tawm xyoo 1788. Nyob rau hauv 1885, cov lus dab neeg ntawm tus sau Krylov tau luam tawm nyob rau hauv cov nplooj ntawv ntawm ib phau ntawv qhov luaj li cas ntawm tus qauv ntawv thwj. Rau lub teeb, ib daim ntawv me me hu ua pob zeb diamond raug xaiv. Koj puas paub lub npe thawj zaugib phau ntawv me me luam tawm thaum lub sijhawm Soviet? Nws yog tsab cai lij choj ntawm RSFSR. Nws tau luam tawm xyoo 1921 hauv Kineshma. Qhov loj ntawm phau ntawv yog peb thiab ib nrab ntawm tsib centimeters.
Tam sim no, muaj ntau tshaj li ib puas yam me me. Qhov loj tshaj plaws sau yog Pushkin cov hauj lwm - muaj tsib caug phau ntawv nyob rau hauv nws. Tus tuav ntaub ntawv tiag tiag yog qhov ntim ntawm 0.064 cubic meters ntawm tus kws sau paj huam. mm. Nws tus creator yog craftsman M. Maslyuk los ntawm Zhmerinka (Vinnitsa cheeb tsam, Ukraine).
Giant specimens
Phau ntawv loj tshaj plaws thaum ub yog cov ntawv sau hauv Armenian hu ua "Cov Lus Qhia ntawm Mush Monastery". Nws tau tsim dua ob xyoos - los ntawm 1200 txog 1202. Qhov hnyav ntawm phau ntawv yog nees nkaum xya thiab ib nrab kilograms. Qhov loj me kuj tseem ceeb - 55.5 x 70.5 cm. Ib daim ntawv tshwj xeeb muaj rau pua thiab ob nplooj ntawv, txhua tus tau siv rau ib hlis laus ntawm cov tawv nqaij nyuj. Xyoo 1204 cov ntawv sau tau raug nyiag los ntawm Seljuks. Ntau tshaj li plaub txhiab drachmas tau sau rau kev txhiv dim los ntawm cov neeg nyob hauv ntau lub zos Armenian (rau koj cov ntaub ntawv: ib lub drachma yog sib npaug rau 4.65 g ntawm nyiaj). Tau ntau tshaj xya xyoo pua, cov ntawv sau tau nyob hauv lub tsev teev ntuj ntawm lub nroog Mush, hauv Western Armenia. Xyoo 1915, nws tsiv mus rau Matenadaran lub tsev teev ntuj hauv Yerevan. Qhov no tshwm sim vim yog cov neeg Turkish pogroms, vim qhov tshwm sim ntawm kev ua haujlwm ntawm tes tuaj yeem raug rhuav tshem.
Stone Bible
Phau ntawv hauv qhov kev ua yeeb yam txawv txawv tuaj yeem pom thaum mus ntsib Xeev Tsev khaws puav pheej ntawm Kev Ua Yeeb Yam, nyob hauv Georgia. Ib zaug ib zaug, tus tswv carved nees nkaum daim phiaj los ntawm Tshiab thiab QubCov ntawv pov thawj ntawm slabs ntawm pob zeb. Qhov no yog qhov piv txwv nkaus xwb. Cov khoom qub tau pom nyob rau hauv lub zos Abkhazian roob ntawm Tsebelda.
Txoj kev tam sim no
Nyob rau hauv lub nineties ntawm lub xyoo pua nees nkaum, dynamic transformations tau pom nyob rau hauv phau ntawv lag luam. Qhov no yog vim muaj kev hloov pauv hauv kev sib raug zoo, kev nom kev tswv thiab nyiaj txiag tshwm sim hauv Lavxias Federation. Yog li, kev tshaj tawm kev lag luam tau dhau los ua ib qho ntawm thawj qhov kev lag luam uas pib hloov mus rau kev lag luam kev sib raug zoo. Phau ntawv tau pib suav tias yog ib yam khoom ntawm kev ua lag luam. Tias yog vim li cas txoj cai ntawm kev tiv thaiv hauv lub xeev hauv kev coj noj coj ua thiab kev tshaj tawm cov phau ntawv raws li nws cov ntsiab lus tseem ceeb heev.
Nyob rau xyoo 1990, kev tshaj tawm thiab faib cov phau ntawv yog kev lag luam muaj txiaj ntsig. Txhua yam tau piav qhia yooj yim: lub teb chaws tau ntsib qhov tsis txaus ntawm cov khoom ntawm hom no. Txawm li cas los xij, qhov no tsis kav ntev. Tom qab li tsib xyoos, kev ua lag luam saturated. Cov neeg yuav khoom pib xaiv cov phau ntawv nrog kev saib xyuas tshwj xeeb. Raws li kev sib tw muaj zog, cov yam ntxwv xws li cov khoom zoo thiab lub koob npe nrov ntawm cov tuam ntxhab thiab cov muag khoom tau pib ua lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb. Lub sij hawm no yog tus cwj pwm los ntawm kev nce hauv feem ntawm cov ntawv luam tawm. Yog li, xyoo 1993, cov phau ntawv los ntawm cov kws sau ntawv txawv teb chaws suav txog yuav luag tsib caug feem pua ntawm tag nrho cov tshaj tawm tawm.
Hnub no muaj cov neeg nyeem hloov pauv. Yog hais tias nyob rau hauv lub Soviet lub sij hawm cov hauj lwm ntawm ib tug kws sau tau nrov nyob rau hauv lub sij hawm ntev, ces tam sim no cov npe ntawm cov muag khoom zoo tshaj plaws tau hloov nrog kiv taub hau.ceev. Qhov no tau pab txhawb los ntawm ntau haiv neeg ntawm kev xav, kev nyiam thiab kev nyiam ntawm pej xeem.
