Thaum kawg ntawm lub xyoo pua 19th, ib ceg ntawm biology hu ua biochemistry tau tsim. Nws kawm txog cov tshuaj muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm cov cell nyob. Lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb ntawm kev tshawb fawb yog kev paub txog cov yam ntxwv ntawm cov metabolism thiab lub zog uas tswj cov haujlwm tseem ceeb ntawm cov nroj tsuag thiab cov tsiaj hlwb.
Lub tswvyim ntawm cov tshuaj muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm tes
Raws li kev tshawb fawb ua tib zoo, cov kws tshawb fawb tau kawm txog cov tshuaj lom neeg ntawm cov hlwb thiab pom tias cov tsiaj muaj sia muaj ntau dua 85 cov tshuaj hauv lawv cov muaj pes tsawg leeg. Tsis tas li ntawd, qee qhov ntawm lawv yog qhov yuav tsum tau ua rau yuav luag tag nrho cov kab mob, thaum lwm tus yog qhov tshwj xeeb thiab pom muaj nyob hauv cov kab mob tshwj xeeb. Thiab pawg thib peb ntawm cov tshuaj muaj nyob rau hauv cov hlwb ntawm cov kab mob, cov nroj tsuag thiab tsiaj txhu hauv cov khoom me me. Cells muaj tshuaj lom neeg feem ntau nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm cations thiab anions, los ntawm cov ntxhia ntsev thiab dej yog tsim, thiab carbon-muaj organic tebchaw yog synthesized: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids.
Organogenic ntsiab
Hauv biochemistry cov no suav nrog carbon, hydrogen,oxygen thiab nitrogen. Lawv tag nrho nyob rau hauv lub cell yog los ntawm 88 mus rau 97% ntawm lwm yam tshuaj nyob rau hauv nws. Cov pa roj carbon tseem ceeb tshwj xeeb. Tag nrho cov organic tshuaj nyob rau hauv muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm tes yog tsim los ntawm molecules uas muaj carbon atoms nyob rau hauv lawv muaj pes tsawg leeg. Lawv muaj peev xwm sib txuas nrog ib leeg, tsim cov saw hlau (txias thiab tsis muaj ceg), nrog rau cov voj voog. Qhov peev xwm ntawm carbon atoms underlies ntau yam zoo kawg nkaus ntawm cov organic tshuaj uas ua rau lub cytoplasm thiab cellular organelles.
Piv txwv li, cov ntsiab lus sab hauv ntawm lub xov tooj ntawm tes muaj cov kua dej oligosaccharides, hydrophilic proteins, lipids, ntau hom ribonucleic acid: hloov RNA, ribosomal RNA thiab tub txib RNA, nrog rau cov monomers dawb - nucleotides. Lub cell nucleus muaj cov tshuaj zoo sib xws. Nws kuj muaj deoxyribonucleic acid molecules uas yog ib feem ntawm chromosomes. Tag nrho cov tebchaw saum toj no muaj cov atom ntawm nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen. Qhov no yog pov thawj ntawm lawv qhov tseem ceeb tshwj xeeb, txij li lub koom haum tshuaj lom neeg ntawm cov hlwb nyob ntawm cov ntsiab lus ntawm cov khoom organogenic uas ua rau cov qauv ntawm tes: hyaloplasm thiab organelles.
Macro ntsiab thiab lawv lub ntsiab lus
Tshuaj lom neeg, uas tseem muaj ntau hauv cov hlwb ntawm ntau hom kab mob, hu ua macronutrients hauv biochemistry. Lawv cov ntsiab lus hauv cell yog 1.2% - 1.9%. Cov macroelements ntawm tes muaj xws li: phosphorus, potassium, chlorine, sulfur, magnesium, calcium, hlau thiab sodium. Tag nrho lawv ua haujlwm tseem ceeb thiab yog ib feem ntawm ntau yamorganelles ntawm tes. Yog li, ferrous ion tam sim no nyob rau hauv cov ntshav protein - hemoglobin, uas thauj cov pa oxygen (qhov no hu ua oxyhemoglobin), carbon dioxide (carbohemoglobin) lossis carbon monoxide (carboxyhemoglobin)..
Sodium ions muab hom tseem ceeb tshaj plaws ntawm kev thauj mus los ntawm cov cellular: lub twj tso kua mis sodium-potassium. Lawv kuj yog ib feem ntawm cov kua dej interstitial thiab ntshav plasma. Magnesium ions tam sim no nyob rau hauv chlorophyll molecules (photopigment ntawm cov nroj tsuag siab dua) thiab koom rau hauv cov txheej txheem ntawm photosynthesis, raws li lawv tsim cov tshuaj tiv thaiv chaw uas ntxiab photons ntawm lub teeb lub zog.
Calcium ions muab kev ua haujlwm ntawm cov hlab ntsha impulses raws cov fibers, thiab tseem yog cov khoom tseem ceeb ntawm osteocytes - pob txha hlwb. Calcium tebchaw yog dav faib nyob rau hauv lub ntiaj teb no ntawm invertebrates, uas nws lub plhaub yog tsim los ntawm calcium carbonate.
Chlorine ions koom nrog hauv kev rov ua kom lub cell membranes thiab muab qhov tshwm sim ntawm hluav taws xob impulses uas underlie nervous excitation.
Sulfur atoms yog ib feem ntawm cov proteins ib txwm muaj thiab txiav txim siab lawv cov qauv tertiary los ntawm "crosslinking" cov saw polypeptide, uas ua rau tsim cov protein globular molecule.
Potassium ions koom nrog hauv kev thauj cov khoom hla ntawm cov cell membranes. Phosphorus atoms yog ib feem ntawm xws li ib qho tseem ceeb zog-intensive tshuaj xws li adenosine triphosphoric acid, thiab kuj yog ib qho tseem ceeb ntawm deoxyribonucleic thiab ribonucleic acid molecules, uas yog cov khoom tseem ceeb ntawm cellular heredity..
Kev ua haujlwm ntawm cov kab mob hauv lub cellularCov metabolism
Hais txog 50 cov tshuaj lom neeg uas tsim tsawg dua 0.1% hauv cov hlwb hu ua kab mob. Cov no suav nrog zinc, molybdenum, iodine, tooj liab, cob alt, fluorine. Nrog rau cov ntsiab lus tsis tseem ceeb, lawv ua haujlwm tseem ceeb heev, vim lawv yog ib feem ntawm ntau yam tshuaj lom neeg lom neeg.
Piv txwv li, zinc atoms pom nyob rau hauv cov molecules ntawm insulin (ib lub pancreatic hormone uas tswj cov ntshav qabzib ntau), iodine yog ib feem tseem ceeb ntawm cov thyroid hormones - thyroxine thiab triiodothyronine, uas tswj cov qib ntawm cov metabolism hauv lub cev. lub cev. Tooj liab, nrog rau cov hlau ions, koom nrog hauv hematopoiesis (kev tsim ntawm erythrocytes, platelets thiab leukocytes hauv cov pob txha liab ntawm vertebrates). Copper ions yog ib feem ntawm cov xim hemocyanin nyob rau hauv cov ntshav ntawm invertebrates, xws li mollusks. Yog li ntawd, cov xim ntawm lawv hemolymph yog xiav.
Txawm tias cov ntsiab lus tsawg dua hauv lub xov tooj ntawm cov tshuaj xws li txhuas, kub, bromine, nyiaj. Lawv hu ua ultramicroelements thiab yog ib feem ntawm cov nroj tsuag thiab tsiaj hlwb. Piv txwv li, kub ions tau kuaj pom hauv pob kws los ntawm kev tshuaj xyuas tshuaj. Bromine atoms nyob rau hauv ntau ntau yog ib feem ntawm lub hlwb ntawm thallus ntawm xim av thiab liab algae, xws li sargassum, kelp, fucus.
Tag nrho cov piv txwv saum toj no thiab qhov tseeb piav qhia tias cov tshuaj lom neeg muaj pes tsawg leeg, kev ua haujlwm thiab cov qauv ntawm tes sib cuam tshuam li cas. Cov lus hauv qab no qhia txog cov ntsiab lus ntawm ntau yam tshuaj nyob rau hauv lub hlwb ntawm cov kab mob nyob.
yam ntxwv ntawm cov organic tshuaj
Cov khoom siv tshuaj ntawm cov hlwb ntawm ntau pawg ntawm cov kab mob hauv ib txoj hauv kev yog nyob ntawm cov pa roj carbon atoms, qhov feem pua ntawm ntau dua 50% ntawm cov cell loj. Yuav luag tag nrho cov teeb meem qhuav ntawm tes yog sawv cev los ntawm carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids thiab lipids, uas muaj cov qauv complex thiab loj molecular hnyav. Cov molecules no hu ua macromolecules (polymer) thiab muaj cov ntsiab lus yooj yim - monomers. Cov tshuaj protein ua lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb heev thiab ua haujlwm ntau, uas yuav tau tham hauv qab no.
Lub luag haujlwm ntawm cov protein hauv cell
Biochemical tsom xam ntawm cov tebchaw uas tsim los ntawm cov cell muaj sia paub meej tias cov ntsiab lus siab ntawm cov organic xws li cov proteins hauv nws. Muaj cov lus piav qhia qhov tseeb rau qhov tseeb: cov proteins ua haujlwm ntau yam thiab koom nrog txhua qhov tshwm sim ntawm lub neej ntawm tes.
Piv txwv li, kev tiv thaiv kev ua haujlwm ntawm cov proteins yog tsim cov tshuaj tiv thaiv - immunoglobulins tsim los ntawm lymphocytes. Kev tiv thaiv cov proteins xws li thrombin, fibrin thiab thromboblastin muab cov ntshav txhaws thiab tiv thaiv nws qhov poob thaum raug mob thiab qhov txhab. Cov muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm tes muaj xws li complex proteins ntawm cell membranes uas muaj peev xwm paub txog txawv teb chaws tebchaw - antigens. Lawv hloov lawv qhov kev teeb tsa thiab qhia lub xovtooj ntawm qhov muaj peev xwm txaus ntshai (kev ua haujlwm kos npe).
Qee cov proteins muaj kev tswj hwm kev ua haujlwm thiab yog cov tshuaj hormones, piv txwv li, oxytocin tsim los ntawm hypothalamus yog tshwj tseg los ntawm lub caj pas pituitary. Los ntawm nws musntshav, oxytocin ua rau cov leeg nqaij ntawm lub tsev menyuam, ua rau nws cog lus. Cov protein vasopressin kuj muaj kev tswj hwm, tswj ntshav siab.
Hauv cov leeg nqaij muaj cov actin thiab myosin uas tuaj yeem cog lus, uas txiav txim siab lub cev muaj zog ntawm cov leeg nqaij. Proteins kuj muaj trophic muaj nuj nqi, piv txwv li, albumin yog siv los ntawm lub embryo raws li ib tug as-ham rau nws txoj kev loj hlob. Cov ntshav proteins ntawm ntau yam kab mob, xws li hemoglobin thiab hemocyanin, nqa oxygen molecules - lawv ua haujlwm thauj. Yog hais tias ntau lub zog-intensive tshuaj xws li carbohydrates thiab lipids tau siv tag nrho, lub xovtooj ntawm tes mus zom cov proteins. Ib gram ntawm cov khoom no muab 17.2 kJ ntawm lub zog. Ib qho ntawm cov haujlwm tseem ceeb tshaj plaws ntawm cov protein yog catalytic (enzymes proteins ua kom cov tshuaj lom neeg tshwm sim nyob rau hauv qhov chaw ntawm lub cytoplasm). Raws li cov lus hais saum toj no, peb tau ntseeg tias cov proteins ua haujlwm ntau yam tseem ceeb thiab yog ib feem ntawm cov tsiaj cell.
YProtein biosynthesis
Xav txog cov txheej txheem ntawm cov protein synthesis nyob rau hauv ib lub cell, uas tshwm sim nyob rau hauv lub cytoplasm nrog kev pab los ntawm organelles xws li ribosomes. Ua tsaug rau kev ua haujlwm ntawm cov enzymes tshwj xeeb, nrog kev koom tes ntawm calcium ions, ribosomes tau ua ke rau hauv polysomes. Lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb ntawm ribosomes nyob rau hauv ib lub xovtooj ntawm tes yog cov synthesis ntawm cov protein molecules, uas pib nrog cov txheej txheem ntawm transcription. Yog li ntawd, mRNA molecules yog synthesized, uas polysomes txuas nrog. Ces tus txheej txheem thib ob pib - txhais. Hloov RNAsUa ke nrog nees nkaum ntau hom amino acids thiab coj lawv mus rau polysomes, thiab txij li thaum lub luag haujlwm ntawm ribosomes hauv ib lub xovtooj ntawm tes yog cov synthesis ntawm polypeptides, cov organelles tsim complexes nrog tRNA, thiab amino acid molecules khi rau ib leeg los ntawm peptide bonds, tsim ib tug complex. protein macromolecule.
Lub luag haujlwm ntawm dej hauv cov txheej txheem metabolic
Cov kev tshawb fawb cytological tau lees paub qhov tseeb tias lub xov tooj ntawm tes, cov qauv thiab cov khoom sib xyaw uas peb tab tom kawm, yog nyob nruab nrab ntawm 70% dej, thiab hauv ntau cov tsiaj ua rau dej hauv lub neej (piv txwv li, coelenterates), nws cov ntsiab lus nce mus txog 97-98%. Nrog rau qhov no nyob rau hauv lub siab, lub koom haum tshuaj ntawm cov hlwb muaj xws li hydrophilic (muaj peev xwm ntawm dissolving) thiab hydrophobic (dej-repellent) tshuaj. Ua ib tug universal polar solvent, dej plays lub luag hauj lwm tshwj xeeb thiab ncaj qha cuam tshuam tsis tau tsuas yog lub luag hauj lwm, tab sis kuj lub heev qauv ntawm lub cell. Cov lus hauv qab no qhia txog cov dej hauv cov hlwb ntawm ntau hom kab mob nyob.
Kev ua haujlwm ntawm carbohydrates hauv cell
Raws li peb pom ua ntej, carbohydrates kuj tseem ceeb cov organic tshuaj - polymers. Cov no suav nrog polysaccharides, oligosaccharides thiab monosaccharides. Carbohydrates yog ib feem ntawm cov complexes - glycolipids thiab glycoproteins, los ntawm cov cell membranes thiab supra-membrane lug, xws li glycocalyx, yog tsim.
Ntxiv rau cov pa roj carbon monoxide, carbohydrates muaj cov pa oxygen thiab hydrogen atoms, thiab qee cov polysaccharides kuj muaj nitrogen, sulfur thiab phosphorus. Muaj ntau ntau carbohydrates nyob rau hauv cov nroj tsuag hlwb: qos tubersmuaj txog li 90% starch, noob thiab txiv hmab txiv ntoo muaj txog li 70% carbohydrates, thiab nyob rau hauv cov tsiaj hlwb lawv muaj nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm cov tebchaw xws li glycogen, chitin thiab trehalose.
Cov suab thaj yooj yim (monosaccharides) muaj cov qauv dav dav CnH2nOn thiab muab faib ua tetroses, trioses, pentoses thiab hexoses. Qhov kawg ob yog qhov ntau tshaj plaws nyob rau hauv lub hlwb ntawm cov kab mob nyob, piv txwv li, ribose thiab deoxyribose yog ib feem ntawm nucleic acids, thiab qabzib thiab fructose koom nrog hauv assimilation thiab dissimilation tshwm sim. Oligosaccharides feem ntau pom muaj nyob rau hauv cov nroj tsuag: sucrose yog khaws cia nyob rau hauv lub hlwb ntawm qab zib beet thiab qab zib cane, m altose muaj nyob rau hauv germinated nplej ntawm rye thiab barley.
Disaccharides muaj qab zib thiab yaj zoo hauv dej. Polysaccharides, ua biopolymers, feem ntau sawv cev los ntawm cov hmoov txhuv nplej siab, cellulose, glycogen thiab laminarin. Chitin belongs rau cov qauv qauv ntawm polysaccharides. Lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb ntawm carbohydrates hauv cell yog lub zog. Raws li qhov tshwm sim ntawm hydrolysis thiab lub zog metabolism hauv cov tshuaj tiv thaiv, polysaccharides tau tawg mus rau cov piam thaj, thiab tom qab ntawd oxidized rau carbon dioxide thiab dej. Raws li qhov tshwm sim, ib gram ntawm cov piam thaj tso tawm 17.6 kJ ntawm lub zog, thiab cov khw muag khoom noj cov hmoov txhuv nplej siab thiab glycogen, qhov tseeb, yog lub pas dej ntawm lub zog ntawm tes.
Glycogen yog khaws cia hauv cov leeg nqaij thiab daim siab hlwb, zaub starch hauv tubers, qij, hauv paus, noob, thiab hauv arthropods xws li kab laug sab, kab thiab crustaceans, trehalose oligosaccharide plays lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb hauv kev muab lub zog.
YCarbohydratesSib txawv ntawm lipids thiab cov proteins hauv lawv lub peev xwm kom tsis muaj oxygen cleavage. Qhov no yog qhov tseem ceeb heev rau cov kab mob uas nyob hauv cov xwm txheej tsis muaj oxygen lossis tsis muaj, xws li cov kab mob anaerobic thiab helminths - kab mob ntawm tib neeg thiab tsiaj txhu.
Muaj lwm txoj haujlwm ntawm carbohydrates hauv cell - lub tsev (cov qauv). Nws nyob hauv qhov tseeb tias cov tshuaj no yog cov qauv txhawb nqa ntawm cov hlwb. Piv txwv li, cellulose yog ib feem ntawm cov phab ntsa ntawm tes ntawm cov nroj tsuag, chitin tsim cov pob txha pob txha ntawm ntau invertebrates thiab pom nyob rau hauv fungal hlwb, olisaccharides, ua ke nrog lipid thiab protein molecules, tsim glycocalyx - ib tug epimembrane complex. Nws muab adhesion - adhesion ntawm cov tsiaj hlwb rau ib leeg, ua rau tsim cov ntaub so ntswg.
Lipids: qauv thiab kev ua haujlwm
Cov tshuaj organic no, uas yog hydrophobic (insoluble hauv dej), tuaj yeem muab rho tawm, uas yog, muab rho tawm los ntawm cov hlwb, siv cov kuab tshuaj tsis muaj zog xws li acetone lossis chloroform. Kev ua haujlwm ntawm lipids hauv ib lub xovtooj yog nyob ntawm seb ntawm peb pawg twg lawv koom nrog: rog, waxes, lossis steroids. Cov rog muaj ntau tshaj plaws hauv txhua hom cell.
Tsiaj khaws cia rau hauv cov ntaub so ntswg subcutaneous adipose, cov ntaub so ntswg paj hlwb muaj cov rog nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm myelin sheaths ntawm paj hlwb. Nws kuj accumulates nyob rau hauv ob lub raum, siab, nyob rau hauv kab - nyob rau hauv lub cev rog. Cov kua roj - roj - muaj nyob rau hauv cov noob ntawm ntau cov nroj tsuag: cedar, txiv laum huab xeeb, paj noob hlis, txiv ntseej. Cov ntsiab lus ntawm lipids hauv hlwb yog li ntawm 5 txog 90% (hauv cov ntaub so ntswg adipose).
Steroids thiab waxesSib txawv ntawm cov rog nyob rau hauv uas lawv tsis muaj fatty acid residues nyob rau hauv lawv cov molecules. Yog li, steroids yog cov tshuaj hormones ntawm adrenal cortex uas cuam tshuam rau kev puberty ntawm lub cev thiab yog cov khoom ntawm testosterone. Lawv kuj pom muaj nyob rau hauv cov vitamins (xws li vitamin D).
Lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb ntawm lipids hauv cell yog lub zog, tsim thiab tiv thaiv. Thawj yog vim lub fact tias 1 gram ntawm cov roj thaum lub sij hawm sib cais muab 38.9 kJ ntawm lub zog - ntau tshaj li lwm yam organic tshuaj - proteins thiab carbohydrates. Tsis tas li ntawd, thaum lub sij hawm oxidation ntawm 1 g ntawm rog, yuav luag 1.1 g raug tso tawm. dej. Tias yog vim li cas qee tus tsiaj, muaj cov rog hauv lawv lub cev, tuaj yeem tsis muaj dej tau ntev. Piv txwv li, gophers tuaj yeem hibernate ntau tshaj li ob lub hlis yam tsis tas yuav tsum tau dej, thiab ib tug ntxhuav tsis haus dej thaum hla cov suab puam rau 10-12 hnub.
Lub tsev ua haujlwm ntawm lipids yog tias lawv yog ib feem ntawm cov cell membranes, thiab kuj yog ib feem ntawm cov hlab ntsha. Kev tiv thaiv kev ua haujlwm ntawm lipids yog tias txheej txheej ntawm cov rog nyob hauv daim tawv nqaij ncig lub raum thiab lwm yam kabmob sab hauv tiv thaiv lawv los ntawm kev raug mob txhua yam. Ib qho tshwj xeeb thermal rwb thaiv tsev muaj nuj nqi yog muaj nyob rau hauv cov tsiaj uas nyob rau hauv dej rau lub sij hawm ntev: whales, seals, fur seals. Ib txheej tuab subcutaneous rog, piv txwv li, nyob rau hauv xiav whale yog 0.5 m, nws tiv thaiv tsiaj los ntawm hypothermia.
Qhov tseem ceeb ntawm oxygen hauv cellular metabolism
Cov kab mob Aerobic, uas suav nrog feem coob ntawm cov tsiaj, nroj tsuag thiab tib neeg, siv cov pa oxygen hauv huab cua rau lub zog metabolism,ua rau kev puas tsuaj ntawm cov organic thiab tso tawm ntawm qee qhov nyiaj ntawm lub zog uas tsim los ntawm cov molecules ntawm adenosine triphosphoric acid.
Yog li, nrog kev ua tiav ntawm oxidation ntawm ib mole ntawm qabzib, uas tshwm sim ntawm cristae ntawm mitochondria, 2800 kJ ntawm lub zog raug tso tawm, ntawm 1596 kJ (55%) yog khaws cia rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm ATP molecules uas muaj macroergic. daim ntawv cog lus. Yog li, lub luag haujlwm tseem ceeb ntawm cov pa oxygen hauv lub xovtooj ntawm tes yog kev ua haujlwm ntawm kev ua pa aerobic, uas yog ua raws li ib pawg ntawm cov tshuaj tiv thaiv enzymatic ntawm cov kab mob hu ua pa, tshwm sim hauv cellular organelles - mitochondria. Nyob rau hauv cov kab mob prokaryotic - cov kab mob phototrophic thiab cyanobacteria - oxidation ntawm cov as-ham tshwm sim nyob rau hauv qhov kev txiav txim ntawm oxygen diffusing mus rau hauv lub hlwb ntawm lub sab hauv outgrowths ntawm plasma membranes.
Peb tau kawm txog cov koom haum tshuaj ntawm cov hlwb, nrog rau cov txheej txheem ntawm cov protein biosynthesis thiab kev ua haujlwm ntawm oxygen hauv cellular zog metabolism.
