Txoj kev kawm ntawm cov kev kawm zoo li chemistry yuav tsum pib nrog cov hauv paus, uas yog kev faib tawm thiab cov npe ntawm cov tshuaj sib xyaw. Qhov no yuav pab koj kom tsis txhob poob rau hauv kev tshawb fawb nyuaj thiab muab txhua yam kev paub tshiab rau hauv nws qhov chaw.
Qhia txog yam tseem ceeb
Lub npe ntawm cov tshuaj sib xyaw ua ke yog lub kaw lus uas suav nrog tag nrho cov npe ntawm cov tshuaj, lawv pab pawg, cov chav kawm thiab cov cai, nrog kev pab los ntawm cov lus tsim ntawm lawv cov npe. Nws tau tsim thaum twg?
thawj nomenclature ntawm chem. Cov tebchaw tau tsim nyob rau xyoo 1787 los ntawm Pawg Thawj Coj ntawm Fab Kis cov kws tshuaj nyob rau hauv kev coj noj coj ua ntawm A. L. Lavoisier. Txog thaum lub sijhawm ntawd, cov npe tau muab rau cov khoom siv arbitrarily: raws li qee cov cim qhia, raws li txoj kev tau txais, raws li lub npe ntawm tus neeg nrhiav pom, thiab lwm yam. Txhua yam khoom tuaj yeem muaj ntau lub npe, uas yog, cov lus sib piv. Pawg Neeg Saib Xyuas tau txiav txim siab tias txhua yam khoom yuav tsum muaj tib lub npe nkaus xwb; lub npe ntawm cov khoom complex yuav muaj ob lo lus qhia txog homthiab poj niam txiv neej ntawm kev sib txuas, thiab yuav tsum tsis txhob cuam tshuam cov lus cai. Qhov nomenclature ntawm cov tshuaj sib xyaw ua ke los ua tus qauv rau kev tsim thaum pib ntawm lub xyoo pua 19th ntawm nomenclatures ntawm ntau haiv neeg, suav nrog Lavxias. Qhov no yuav tham ntxiv.
Nyob ntawm nomenclature ntawm tshuaj compounds
Nws zoo nkaus li nws yooj yim nkag siab txog chemistry. Tab sis yog tias koj saib ob hom tshuaj nomenclature. kev sib txuas, koj tuaj yeem pom tias txhua yam tsis nyuaj. Qhov kev faib tawm no yog dab tsi? Nov yog ob hom tshuaj sib xyaw nomenclature:
- inorganic;
- organic.
Yuav yog dab tsi?
yam yooj yim
Cov tshuaj nomenclature ntawm inorganic compounds yog cov qauv thiab cov npe ntawm cov tshuaj. Cov tshuaj formula yog ib daim duab ntawm cov cim thiab cov tsiaj ntawv uas qhia txog cov muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm ib yam khoom uas siv lub Periodic system ntawm Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev. Lub npe yog cov duab ntawm cov khoom siv uas siv cov lus tshwj xeeb lossis pawg lus. Kev tsim kho cov qauv yog ua raws li cov cai ntawm nomenclature ntawm cov tshuaj sib xyaw ua ke, thiab, siv lawv, kev xaiv yog muab.
Lub npe ntawm qee lub ntsiab lus yog tsim los ntawm lub hauv paus ntawm cov npe no hauv Latin. Piv txwv li:
- C - Carbon, lat. carboneum, hauv paus "carb". Piv txwv ntawm cov tebchaw: CaC - calcium carbide; CaCO3 - calcium carbonate.
- N - Nitrogen, lat. nitrogen, hauv paus "nitr". Piv txwv ntawm cov tebchaw: NaNO3 - sodium nitrate; Ca3N2 - calcium nitride.
- H - Hydrogen, lat. hydrogenium,hydro hauv paus. Piv txwv ntawm cov tebchaw: NaOH - sodium hydroxide; NaH - sodium hydride.
- O - Oxygen, lat. oxygenium, cag "ox". Piv txwv ntawm cov tebchaw: CaO - calcium oxide; NaOH - sodium hydroxide.
- Fe - Hlau, lat. ferrum, hauv paus "ferr". Piv txwv: K2FeO4 - potassium ferrate thiab lwm yam.
Prefixes yog siv los piav txog tus naj npawb ntawm atoms hauv ib qho chaw. Nyob rau hauv lub rooj, piv txwv li, tshuaj ntawm ob qho tib si organic thiab inorganic chemistry raug coj.
| Number of atoms | Prefix | Example |
| 1 | mono- | carbon monoxide - CO |
| 2 | di- | carbon dioxide - CO2 |
| 3 | three- | sodium triphosphate - Na5R3O10 |
| 4 | tetro- | sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate - Na[Al(OH)4 |
| 5 | penta- | pentanol - С 5 Н 11 OH |
| 6 | hexa- | hexane - C6H14 |
| 7 | hepta- | heptene - C7H14 |
| 8 | octa- | octine - C8H14 |
| 9 | nona- | nonane - C9H20 |
| 10 | deca- | Dean - C10H22 |
Organickhoom
Nrog cov tebchaw ntawm cov organic chemistry, txhua yam tsis yooj yim li nrog inorganics. Qhov tseeb yog tias cov ntsiab cai ntawm cov tshuaj nomenclature ntawm cov organic tebchaw yog raws li peb hom nomenclature ib zaug. Thaum xub thawj siab ib muag, qhov no zoo li xav tsis thoob thiab tsis meej pem. Txawm li cas los xij, lawv yooj yim heev. Nov yog cov hom tshuaj sib xyaw nomenclature:
- keeb kwm lossis tsis tseem ceeb;
- systematic lossis thoob ntiaj teb;
- rational.
Tam sim no, lawv tau siv los muab lub npe rau ib qho organic compound. Cia peb xav txog txhua tus ntawm lawv thiab xyuas kom meej tias cov npe ntawm cov chav kawm tseem ceeb ntawm cov tshuaj sib txuas tsis yog qhov nyuaj li nws zoo li.
Tseeb
Nov yog thawj qhov nomenclature uas tau tshwm sim thaum pib ntawm txoj kev loj hlob ntawm cov organic chemistry, thaum tsis muaj kev faib tawm ntawm cov tshuaj los yog txoj kev xav ntawm cov qauv ntawm lawv cov tebchaw. Organic compounds tau muab npe random raws li qhov chaw tsim khoom. Piv txwv li, malic acid, oxalic acid. Tsis tas li ntawd, cov txheej txheem sib txawv uas cov npe tau muab yog xim, tsw thiab tshuaj lom neeg. Txawm li cas los xij, qhov kawg tsis tshua muaj qhov laj thawj, vim tias lub sijhawm no cov ntaub ntawv me me tau paub txog qhov muaj peev xwm ntawm lub ntiaj teb organic. Txawm li cas los xij, ntau lub npe ntawm qhov qub qub thiab nqaim nomenclature feem ntau siv rau niaj hnub no. Piv txwv li: acetic acid, urea, indigo (ntsuab crystals), toluene, alanine, butyric acid thiab ntau lwm yam.
Rational
Nomenclaturetshwm sim los ntawm lub sijhawm qhov kev faib tawm thiab kev koom ua ke txoj kev xav ntawm cov qauv ntawm cov organic tebchaw tau tshwm sim. Nws muaj lub cim ntawm lub teb chaws. Organic compounds tau txais lawv cov npe los ntawm hom lossis chav kawm uas lawv muaj, raws li lawv cov tshuaj thiab lub cev (acetylenes, ketones, cawv, ethylene, aldehydes, thiab lwm yam). Tam sim no, xws li nomenclature yog siv tsuas yog nyob rau hauv cov ntaub ntawv uas nws muab ib tug pom thiab ntau ncauj lus kom ntxaws tswv yim ntawm lub compound nyob rau hauv nqe lus nug. Piv txwv li: methyl acetylene, dimethyl ketone, methyl cawv, methylamine, chloroacetic acid thiab lwm yam. Yog li, los ntawm lub npe nws tam sim ntawd paub meej tias cov organic compound muaj li cas, tab sis qhov tseeb ntawm cov pab pawg hloov pauv tseem tsis tuaj yeem txiav txim siab.
International
Nws lub npe puv yog lub npe thoob ntiaj teb nomenclature ntawm cov tshuaj sib xyaw IUPAC (IUPAC, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). Nws tau tsim thiab pom zoo los ntawm IUPAC cov rooj sib tham hauv xyoo 1957 thiab 1965. Cov kev cai ntawm lub npe hu ua thoob ntiaj teb, luam tawm xyoo 1979, tau sau rau hauv Phau Ntawv Xiav.
Lub hauv paus ntawm cov txheej txheem nomenclature ntawm cov tshuaj sib txuas yog cov kev xav niaj hnub ntawm cov qauv thiab kev faib tawm ntawm cov organic tshuaj. Cov txheej txheem no tsom los daws qhov teeb meem tseem ceeb ntawm nomenclature: lub npe ntawm tag nrho cov organic tebchaw yuav tsum suav nrog cov npe ntawm cov khoom siv (kev ua haujlwm) thiab lawv cov kev txhawb nqa - hydrocarboncev pob txha. Nws yuav tsum yog xws li tias nws tuaj yeem siv los txiav txim siab tus qauv tsim nyog xwb.
Lub siab xav los tsim cov tshuaj nomenclature rau cov organic tebchaw pib hauv 80s ntawm lub xyoo pua XIX. Qhov no tshwm sim tom qab tsim los ntawm Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov ntawm txoj kev xav ntawm cov qauv tshuaj, nyob rau hauv uas muaj plaub lub ntsiab kev cai uas qhia txog qhov kev txiav txim ntawm atoms nyob rau hauv ib tug molecule, qhov tshwm sim ntawm isomerism, kev sib raug zoo ntawm cov qauv thiab cov khoom ntawm cov khoom, nrog rau kev cuam tshuam ntawm atoms ntawm ib leeg. Qhov kev tshwm sim no tshwm sim nyob rau hauv 1892 nyob rau hauv lub Congress ntawm Chemists nyob rau hauv Geneva, uas tau pom zoo cov kev cai rau lub nomenclature ntawm cov organic tebchaw. Cov kev cai no tau suav nrog hauv cov organics hu ua Geneva nomenclature. Raws li nws, phau ntawv uas nrov Beilstein tau tsim.
Ib txwm, dhau sijhawm, tus nqi ntawm cov organic tebchaw loj hlob. Vim li no, lub npe nom tswv tau dhau los ua qhov nyuaj txhua lub sijhawm, thiab cov kev ntxiv tshiab tau tshwm sim, uas tau tshaj tawm thiab tau txais kev pom zoo ntawm lub rooj sib tham tom ntej, tuav hauv 1930 hauv nroog Liege. Kev tsim kho tshiab tau tsim los ntawm kev yooj yim thiab kev ua tiav. Thiab tam sim no cov txheej txheem thoob ntiaj teb nomenclature tau nqus qee qhov kev cai ntawm Geneva thiab Liege.
Yog li, peb hom kev ua haujlwm no yog cov hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm cov tshuaj nomenclature ntawm cov organic tebchaw.
Kev faib cov tshuaj yooj yim
Tam sim no nws yog lub sijhawm kom paub txog qhov nthuav dav tshaj plaws: kev faib tawm ntawm cov organic thiab inorganic tshuaj.
Tam sim no lub ntiaj teb notxhiab tus sib txawv inorganic tebchaw paub. Nws yuav luag tsis paub tag nrho lawv cov npe, qauv thiab cov khoom. Yog li ntawd, tag nrho cov khoom ntawm inorganic chemistry tau muab faib ua cov chav kawm uas pab pawg tag nrho cov tebchaw raws li cov qauv zoo sib xws thiab cov khoom. Qhov kev faib tawm no muaj nyob rau hauv cov lus hauv qab no.
| Inorganic substances | |
| Simple | Metal (metals) |
| Non-metallic (non-metals) | |
| Amphoteric (amphigens) | |
| Noble gases (aerogens) | |
| Complex | Oxides |
| Hydroxides (bases) | |
| Sats | |
| Binary Compounds | |
| Acids | |
Rau thawj zaug, peb siv pes tsawg lub ntsiab lus muaj. Yog hais tias los ntawm atoms ntawm ib lub caij, ces nws yog yooj yim, thiab yog los ntawm ob los yog ntau tshaj - complex.
Cia peb xav txog txhua chav kawm ntawm cov khoom yooj yim:
- Cov hlau yog cov ntsiab lus nyob rau hauv thawj, thib ob, peb pawg (tshwj tsis yog boron) ntawm lub sij hawm ntawm D. I. Mendeleev, nrog rau cov ntsiab lus ntawm ntau xyoo, lantonoids thiab octinoids. Tag nrho cov hlau muaj lub cev zoo (ductility, thermal thiab hluav taws xob conductivity, metallic luster) thiab tshuaj (txo, cuam tshuam nrog dej, kua qaub, thiab lwm yam) khoom.
- Tsis yog-hlau suav nrog tag nrho cov ntsiab lus ntawm yim, xya, rau (tshwj tsis yog polonium) pawg, nrog rau arsenic, phosphorus, carbon (los ntawm pawg thib tsib), silicon, carbon (los ntawm pawg plaub) thiab boron (los ntawm qhov thib peb).
- AmphotericCompounds yog cov tebchaw uas tuaj yeem pom cov khoom ntawm ob qho tib si tsis yog hlau thiab hlau. Piv txwv li, txhuas, zinc, beryllium thiab lwm yam.
- Noble (inert) gases suav nrog cov khoom ntawm yim pawg: radon, xeon, krypton, argon, neon, helium. Lawv cov cuab yeej cuab tam yog kev ua haujlwm tsawg.
Vim tag nrho cov tshuaj yooj yim yog tsim los ntawm cov atoms ntawm tib lub ntsiab lus ntawm Lub Sij Hawm Lub Sij Hawm, lawv cov npe feem ntau sib txuam nrog cov npe ntawm cov tshuaj no ntawm lub rooj.
txhawm rau paub qhov txawv ntawm cov ntsiab lus ntawm "cov khoom siv tshuaj" thiab "cov khoom siv yooj yim", txawm tias cov npe zoo sib xws, koj yuav tsum nkag siab cov hauv qab no: nrog kev pab los ntawm thawj zaug, cov tshuaj complex tsim, nws khi rau. cov atoms ntawm lwm cov ntsiab lus, nws tsis tuaj yeem suav tias yog cov khoom sib cais. Lub tswv yim thib ob ua rau peb paub tias cov khoom no muaj nws tus kheej, tsis muaj kev cuam tshuam nrog lwm tus. Piv txwv li, muaj cov pa oxygen uas yog ib feem ntawm cov dej, thiab muaj cov pa uas peb ua pa. Nyob rau hauv thawj rooj plaub, lub ntsiab raws li ib feem ntawm tag nrho yog dej, thiab nyob rau hauv lub thib ob rooj plaub, raws li ib tug tshuaj nyob rau hauv nws tus kheej, uas lub cev muaj sia nyob ua pa.
Tam sim no xav txog txhua chav kawm ntawm cov tshuaj complex:
- Oxides yog cov khoom sib xyaw uas muaj ob lub ntsiab lus, ib qho yog oxygen. Oxides yog: yooj yim (thaum yaj hauv dej, lawv tsim rau hauv hauv paus), amphoteric (tsim nrog kev pab los ntawm amphoteric hlau), acidic (tsim los ntawm non-metals nyob rau hauv oxidation xeev ntawm +4 mus rau +7), ob (tsim nrog cov kev koom tes ntawm cov hlau sib txawvoxidizing degrees) thiab tsis yog ntsev-tsim (piv txwv li, TSIS MUAJ, CO, N 2 O thiab lwm yam).
- Hydroxides suav nrog cov tshuaj uas muaj nyob hauv lawv cov pawg - OH (hydroxyl pawg). Lawv yog: yooj yim, amphoteric thiab acidic.
- Cov ntsev yog hu ua cov sib xyaw ua ke, uas suav nrog cov hlau cation thiab anion ntawm cov kua qaub seem. Cov ntsev yog: nruab nrab (hlau cation + acid residue anion); acidic (hlau cation + unsubstituted hydrogen atom(s) + acid residue); yooj yim (hlau cation + acid residue + hydroxyl pawg); ob (ob lub hlau cations + acid residue); sib tov (hlau cation + ob acid residues).
- Ib qho binary compound yog ob lub ntsiab lus lossis ntau lub ntsiab lus, suav nrog tsis pub ntau tshaj ib qho cation, lossis anion, lossis ib qho nyuaj cation, lossis anion. Piv txwv li, KF, CCl4, NH3 thiab lwm yam.
- Acids suav nrog cov tshuaj nyuaj uas nws cov cations tsuas yog hydrogen ions xwb. Lawv cov anions tsis zoo yog hu ua acid residues. Cov tebchaw nyuaj no tuaj yeem ua rau oxygenated lossis anoxic, monobasic lossis dibasic (nyob ntawm seb muaj pes tsawg tus hydrogen atoms), muaj zog lossis tsis muaj zog.
Kev faib tawm ntawm cov organic tebchaw
Raws li koj paub, txhua qhov kev faib tawm yog nyob ntawm qee yam nta. Kev faib tawm niaj hnub ntawm cov organic tebchaw yog ua raws li ob qho tseem ceeb tshaj plaws:
- qauv ntawm cov pob txha carbon;
- muaj cov pab pawg ua haujlwm hauv cov molecule.
Ib pawg ua haujlwm yog cov atoms lossis pawg atoms uas cov khoom ntawm cov khoom nyob ntawm. Lawv txiav txim siab seb chav kawm twg ib qho chaw tshwj xeeb yog nyob rau.
| YHydrocarbons | ||
| Acyclic | Limit | |
| Unlimited | Ethylene | |
| Acetylene | ||
| Diene | ||
| Cyclic | Cycloalkanes | |
| Aromatic | ||
- alcohols (-OH);
- aldehydes (-COH);
- carboxylic acids (-COOH);
- amines (-NH2).
Rau lub tswv yim ntawm thawj zaug faib cov hydrocarbons rau hauv cov chav kawm cyclic thiab acyclic, nws yog ib qho tsim nyog yuav tsum tau paub txog cov roj carbon chains:
- Linear (carbons yog teem raws txoj kab ncaj nraim).
- Branched (ib tug ntawm cov carbons ntawm cov saw muaj ib daim ntawv cog lus nrog rau lwm yam peb carbons, uas yog, ib ceg yog tsim).
- Kaw (carbon atoms tsim lub nplhaib lossis lub voj voog).
Cov carbons uas muaj cov voj voog hauv lawv cov qauv hu ua cyclic, thiab tus so yog hu ua acyclic.
Ib nqe lus piav qhia ntawm txhua chav kawm ntawm cov organic tebchaw
- Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) tsis muaj peev xwm ntxiv hydrogen thiab lwm yam khoom. Lawv cov qauv dav dav yog C H2n+2. Tus neeg sawv cev yooj yim tshaj plaws ntawm alkanes yog methane (CH4). Tag nrho cov tebchaw tom ntej ntawm chav kawm no zoo ib yam li methane hauv lawv cov qauv thiabcov khoom, tab sis txawv ntawm nws nyob rau hauv muaj pes tsawg leeg los ntawm ib los yog ntau pawg -CH2-. Xws li cov khoom sib txuas uas ua raws li tus qauv no yog hu ua homologous. Alkanes muaj peev xwm nkag mus rau hauv kev hloov pauv, combustion, decomposition thiab isomerization cov tshuaj tiv thaiv (hloov mus rau hauv branched carbons).
- Cycloalkanes zoo ib yam li alkanes, tab sis muaj cov qauv cyclic. Lawv cov mis yog C H2n. Lawv tuaj yeem koom nrog cov tshuaj tiv thaiv ntxiv (piv txwv li, hydrogen, ua alkanes), hloov pauv thiab dehydrogenation (hydrogen abstraction).
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons ntawm ethylene series (alkenes) muaj xws li hydrocarbons nrog rau cov mis C H2n. Tus neeg sawv cev yooj yim tshaj plaws yog ethylene - C2H4. Lawv muaj ib daim ntawv cog lus ob zaug hauv lawv cov qauv. Cov khoom ntawm cov chav kawm no tau koom nrog cov tshuaj tiv thaiv ntxiv, combustion, oxidation, polymerization (tus txheej txheem ntawm kev sib txuas me me zoo tib yam molecules rau cov loj dua).
- Diene (alkadienes) hydrocarbons muaj cov mis C H2n-2. Lawv twb muaj ob daim ntawv cog lus ob npaug thiab muaj peev xwm nkag mus rau hauv qhov sib ntxiv thiab cov tshuaj tiv thaiv polymerization.
- Acetylene (alkynes) txawv ntawm lwm cov chav kawm uas muaj ib daim ntawv cog lus triple. Lawv cov qauv dav dav yog C H2n-2. Tus neeg sawv cev yooj yim tshaj plaws - acetylene - C2H2. Nkag mus ntxiv, oxidation thiab polymerization cov tshuaj tiv thaiv.
- Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes) yog li lub npe vim tias qee qhov ntawm lawv muaj ntxhiab tsw qab. Lawv muaj ib tug cyclic qauv. Lawv cov qauv dav dav yog CH2n-6. Tus neeg sawv cev yooj yim tshaj plaws yog benzene - C6H6. Lawv tuaj yeem raug cov tshuaj tiv thaiv halogenation (hloov cov hydrogen atoms los ntawm halogen atoms), nitration, ntxiv thiab oxidation.
